Piety, profit and public service in the financial revolution

English Historical Review

Volumn 126, Issue 521, 2011, Pages 806-834

  Yamamoto, Koji ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 80955122751     PISSN: 00138266     EISSN: 14774534     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ehr/cer201     Document Type: Article

References (230)

1. H.J. Habakkuk, 'The Rise and Fall of English Landed Families, 1600-1800
2. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, xxix (1979), pp. 187-207, xxx (1980), pp. 199-221, xxi (1981), pp. 195-217
3. T.H. Aston and C.H.E. Philpin, eds., The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-industrial Europe (Cambridge, 1985)
4. P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688-2000 (2nd edn., Harlow, 2001). For the financial revolution
5. P.G.M. Dickson, The Financial Revolution in England: A Study in the Development of Public Credit 1688-1756 (1967)
6. H. Roseveare, The Financial Revolution (New York, 1991)
7. A.L. Murphy, The Origins of English Financial Markets: Investment and Speculation before the South Sea Bubble (Cambridge, 2009)
8. J. Brewer, Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688-1783 (1989), esp. ch. 4
9. C. Brooks, 'Taxation, Finance and Public Opinion, 1688-1714', Univ. of Cambridge Ph.D. thesis, 1971, chs. 7-8.
10. J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 103, 48.
11. G. Holmes and W.A. Speck, eds., The Divided Society: Party Conflict in England 1694-1716 (1967), pp. 135-6.
12. The phrase is taken from L. Stewart, The Rise of Public Science: Rhetoric, Technology, and Natural Philosophy in Newtonian Britain, 1660-1750 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 154.
13. Pocock, Virtue, pp. 103, 48.
14. Pocock, Virtue, p. 103. For applications of this thesis to literary criticism
15. C. Nicholson, Writing and the Rise of Finance: Capital Satires of the Early Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1994)
16. L. Brown, Fables of Modernity: Literature and Culture in the English Eighteenth Century (Ithaca, 2001), ch. 3.
17. Brewer, Sinews of Power, pp. 200-10 at p. 206.
18. F. Heal and C. Holmes, The Gentry in England and Wales, 1500-1700 (Basingstoke, 1994), p. 164
19. S. Whyman, Sociability and Power in Later-Stuart England: The Cultural Worlds of the Verneys 1660-1720 (Oxford, 1999), p. 83.
20. M.J. Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850-1980 (2nd edn., with a new preface, Cambridge, 2004), p. xvi.
21. Stewart, Rise of Public Science, p. 165.
22. J.V. Beckett, Coal and Tobacco: The Lowthers and the Economic Development of West Cumberland, 1660-1760 (Cambridge, 1981), chs. 2, 5.
23. P. Jenkins, 'Tory Industrialism and Town Politics: Swansea in the Eighteenth Century', Historical Journal, xxviii (1985), pp. 103-23
24. L. Colley, In Defiance of Oligarchy: the Tory Party, 1714-1760 (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 9-10, 148.
25. P. Monod, 'Dangerous Merchandise: Smuggling, Jacobitism, and Commercial Culture in Southeast England, 1680-1760', Journal of British Studies, xxx (1991), pp. 150-82.
26. Whyman, Sociability and Power, pp. 78-84. Binding sons into apprenticeship was not unusual even at the upper end of the social strata.
27. See, for example, G. Holmes, British Politics in the Age of Anne (rev. edn., 1987), p. 166.
28. Stewart, Rise of Public Science, pp. 311-319.
29. Heal and Holmes, Gentry, p. 126.
30. Brewer, Sinews of Power, p. 204.
31. J.M. Rosenheim, The Emergence of a Ruling Order: English Landed Society, 1650-1750 (1998), pp. 80-83, at p. 81.
32. Brewer, Sinews of Power, p. 206.
33. Stewart, Rise of Public Science, p. 163 (see also pp. 165, 315-319).
34. Heal and Holmens, Gentry, p. 164.
35. Whyman, Sociability and Power, p. 83.
36. D. Hayton, 'The "Country" Interest and the Party System, 1689-c.1720
37. C. Jones, ed., Party and Management in Parliament (Leicester, 1984), pp. 37-85
38. C. Brooks, 'The Country Persuasion and Political Responsibility in England in the 1690s
39. Parliaments, Estates and Representation, iv (1984), pp. 134-46. Even Pocock himself has warned that there were after all 'no simple antitheses between land and trade, or even land and credit'. His argument is not so much that tory or country landed gentlemen did not engage in commercial activities, as that their responses to 'a new politics and economics ... led to a profound consciousness of moral ambiguity'.
40. J.G.A. Pocock, Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, 1975), pp. 446, 448, 449-50, at pp. 449-50.
41. C. Muldrew, Economy of Obligation: The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England (1998)
42. A. Fox, Oral and Literate Culture in England, 1500-1700 (Cambridge, 2000), ch. 6-7.
43. S. Shapin, Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, 1994)
44. J. Barrell, English Literature in History, 1730-80: An Equal, Wide Survey (1983). For a recent survey of the concept of disinterestedness
45. M. McKeon, Secret History of Domesticity: Public, Private, and the Division of Knowledge (Baltimore, 2005), pp. 342-68, 385-6.
46. Daniel Defoe, An Essay upon Projects (1697), pp. 10-11.
47. N. Glaisyer, Culture of Commerce in England, 1660-1720 (Woodbridge, 2006), ch. 1 (esp. pp. 54-8)
48. B. Cowan, The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse (New Haven, 2005), chs. 4, 6, 7.
49. P. Lake, 'From Troynouvant to Heliogabulus's Rome and Back: "Order" and Its Others in the London of John Stow', in J.F. Merritt, ed., Imagining Early Modern London: Perceptions and Portrayals of the City from Stow to Strype, 1598-1720 (Cambridge, 2001), p. 219.
50. A. Shepard, Meanings of Manhood in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 1, 83, 172, 246-7, at p. 172.
51. Shapin, Social History of Truth, ch. 2;
52. A. Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility: Changing Codes of Conduct in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1998).
53. G. Francis, The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District (2nd edn., 1881), pp. 85-6
54. D.R. Phillips, The History of the Vale of Neath (Swansea, 1925), p. 278
55. S. Evans, 'An Investigation of Sir Humphrey Mackworth's Industrial Activities', Univ. of Wales M.A. thesis, 1953, pp. 239-45
56. W. Rees, Industry before the Industrial Revolution (2 vols., Cardiff, 1968), ii. 561-2
57. W.P. Griffith, 'Mackworth, Sir Humphry (1657-1727)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
58. E. Cruickshanks, S. Handley and D. Hayton, eds., History of Parliament: The House of Commons, 1690-1715 (5 vols., Cambridge, 2002), iv. 724-35 (hereafter cited as Hayton, 'Mackworth').
59. Humphrey Mackworth, The Principles of a Member of the Black List (1702), p. xxiii.
60. Humphrey Mackworth, England's Glory (1694).
61. West Glamorgan Archive Service, RISW Gn 4/552, Letter from Humphrey Mackworth to his brother, 29 May 1711.
62. Glaisyer, Cowan, Lake and Shepard cited above, my approach is also inspired by Q. Skinner, Meaning and Context: Quentin Skinner and His Critics, ed. J. Tully (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 115-118
63. K. Wrightson, 'The Politics of Parish in Early Modern England', in P. Griffiths, A. Fox and S. Hindle, eds., The Experience of Authority in Early Modern England (Basingstoke, 1996), pp. 32-5.
64. Narcissus Luttrell, A Brief Historical Relation of State of Affairs from September 1678 to April 1714 (6 vols., Oxford, 1857), iv. 434, 489.
65. W.R. Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720, (3 vols., Cambridge, 1910-12), ii. 445-7.
66. A New Abstract of the Mine-Adventure [...] (1698), non-paginated handbill.
67. A. Murphy, 'Lotteries in the 1690s: Investment or Gamble?', Financial History Review, xii (2005), pp. 232, 245.
68. Flying Post or the Post Master, p. 529, Thursday 29 Sept. 1698
69. Post Man and the Historical Account, p. 520, Thursday 29 Sept. 1698
70. Post Boy, p. 566, Saturday 26 Nov. 1698.
71. A new abstract was available in such places as the Queens Head, Little Lincolns-Inn Fields, 'and most of the eminent Booksellers in London and Westminster', and was probably given gratis. Post Boy, p. 520, Thursday 1 Sept. 1698
72. Post Boy, p. 560, Saturday 12 Nov. 1698.
73. A List of the Fortunate Adventurers in the Mine-Adventure (1699); A List of All the Adventurers in the Mine-Adventure (1700).
74. H. Erskine-Hill, The Social Milieu of Alexander Pope: Lives, Example and the Poetic Response (New Haven, 1975), pp. 143-4. Hedges had tory as well as whig connections.
75. For more details, see A Settlement of the Mines late of Sir Carbery Pryse (1698), p. 1; Evans, 'An Investigation of Sir Humphrey Mackworth's Industrial Activities', appendix N.
76. William Shiers, A Familiar Discourse or Dialogue Concerning the Mine-Adventure (1700), sig. A4.
77. Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 447
78. Rees, Industry, ii. 531. It was emphasised that each shareholder had only one vote. All shareholders were allowed to make complaints at general meetings of the Company, but not in law courts.
79. Thomas Bateman, An Answer to the Postscript of a Paper, published by Sir H. M [...] intitul'd An Answer to Several Objections (1698), p. 1.
80. A True Copy of Several Affidavits (1698); Waller
81. An Essay on the Value of the Mines; Thomas Yalden
82. A Poem on the Mines Late of Sir Carbery Price. Dedicated to Sir Humphry Mackworth (1701)
83. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse.
84. Waller, An Essay on the Value of the Mines, pp. 41-7, 53-4
85. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse, pp. 83-4.
86. Angliae Tutamen, or, the Safety of England (1695).
87. K. Yamamoto, 'Distrust, Innovations, and Public Service: "Projecting" in Seventeenth- and Early Eighteenth-Century England', Univ. of York D.Phil. thesis, 2009, ch. 5.
88. Unless otherwise indicated, biographical information about Mackworth in this section is taken from ODNB and Hayton, 'Mackworth'.
89. A.H. John and G. Williams, eds., Glamorgan County History (5 vols., Cardiff, 1936-88), v. 7.
90. Mackworth Diary, fo. 71, 27 Sept. 1696.
91. M.J. Daunton, Progress and Poverty: And Economic and Social History of Britain 1700-1850 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 239-40, at p. 240.
92. R. Harris, Industrializing English Law: Entrepreneurship and Business Organization, 1720-1844 (Cambridge, 2000), ch. 1
93. P.W. Ireland, 'The Rise of the Limited Liability Company', International Journal of the Sociology of Law, xii (1984), pp. 239-60.
94. Journal of the House of Commons, xvi. 358 (hereafter cited as CJ); Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 446.
95. The following summary is based primarily on Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 449-67
96. Rees, Industry, ii. 549-67.
97. Humphrey Mackworth, A Short State of the Case and Proceedings of the Company of Mine- Adventurers (1710), p. 22
98. Phillips, Vale of Neath, p. 234
99. Rees, Industry, ii. 524; CJ, xvi, 367.
100. J. Taylor, 'Company Fraud in Victorian Britain: The Royal British Bank Scandal of 1856', ante, cxxii (2007), pp. 719-720.
101. CJ, xvi. 391. The verdict came out of the parliamentary investigation documented in ibid., xvi. 311, 322, 328, 358-69, 388-90.
102. W.J. Lewis, 'Lead Mining in Cardiganshire', in G.H. Jenkins and I. Gwynedd, eds., Cardiganshire County History: III. Cardiganshire in Modern Times (Cardiff, 1998), pp. 168, 169, 178.
103. Mackworth Diary, fo. 98, 30 July 1699.
104. Waller, An Essay on the Value of the Mines, sig. b.
105. A New Abstract. For a cultural history of oath-taking, see J. Spurr, 'A Profane History of Early Modern Oath', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, xi (2001), pp. 37-63.
106. A Settlement of the Mine-Adventure (1698), pp. 8, 10.
107. Defoe recommended that lotteries be supervised 'by Men of known Integrity and Estate' to prevent fraud. See Defoe, Essay upon Projects, p. 187.
108. William Waller, The Mine Adventure Laid Open (1710), p. 17, Mackworth to Waller, 9 Apr. 1700.
109. Mackworth told Waller to pay 'compliments to my Lord Lisburne, that he may command what coal he pleases, at his own price'. Hayton, 'Mackworth', iv. 726.
110. H. Horwitz, Parliament, Policy, and Politics in the Reign of William III (Manchester, 1977), p. 321.
111. Hayton, 'Mackworth', passim; M. Ransome, 'The Parliamentary Career of Sir Humphrey Mackworth, 1701-13', University of Birmingham Historical Journal, i (1948), pp. 232-54.
112. A New Abstract. See also Waller's praise of Mackworth quoted earlier.
113. A True Copy of Several Affidavits, p. 4.
114. T. Shankland, 'Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the Charity-School Movement in Wales 1699-1737', Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (1904-5), pp. 142, 211.
115. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse, p. 150.
116. Thomas Bushell, An Extract by Mr. Bushell of His Late Abridgment of the Lord Chancellor Bacons Philosophical Theory in Mineral Prosecutions (1660), p. 29
117. Thomas Birch, History of the Royal Society of London [1757] (4 vols., Brussels, 1968), iii. 196-216 (esp. 210)
118. Sir Robert Southwell's 'discourse concerning water'; Defoe, Essay upon Projects, p. 103.
119. Phillips, Vale of Neath, pp. 169, 233-7, 263, 377-9.
120. Compare D. Hayton, 'Moral Reform and Country Politics in the Late Seventeenth-Century House of Commons', Past & Present, cxxviii (1990), pp. 48-91 (esp. p. 75).
121. A. Cambers, 'Reading, the Godly, and Self-Writing in England, circa 1580-1720', Journal of British Studies, xlvi (2007), p. 824.
122. J. Thirsk, Economic Policy and Projects: The Development of a Consumer Society in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1978).
123. L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558-1641 (Oxford, 1965), pp. 338-55
124. Heal and Holmes, Gentry, pp. 120-23
125. G.E. Mingay, English Landed Society in the Eighteenth Century (1963), pp. 189-96
126. J.V. Beckett, The Aristocracy in England 1660-1914 (Oxford, 1986), pp. 209-25.
127. Gabriel Plattes, A Discovery of Subterraneal Treasure (1639), sig. [B2v].
128. T. Claydon, William III and the Godly Revolution (Cambridge, 1996)
129. J. Spurr, 'The Church, the Societies and the Moral Revolution of 1688', in J. Walsh, C. Haydon and S. Taylor, eds., The Church of England c. 1689-c. 1833: From Toleration to Tractarianism (Cambridge, 193), p. 173.
130. M. Goldie, 'Voluntary Anglicans', Historical Journal, xlvi (2003), pp. 98-90
131. C. Rose 'Providence, Protestant Union and Godly Reformation in the 1690s', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, iii (1993), pp. 151-69.
132. Claydon, William III, pp. 11-15
133. C. Rose, 'The Origins and Ideals of the SPCK 1699-1716', in Haydon and Taylor, eds., The Church of England c.1689-c.1833, p. 173
134. T. Hitchcock, 'Paupers and Preachers: The SPCK and the Parochial Work-House Movement', in L. Davison, T. Hitchcock, T. Keirn and R.B. Shoemaker, eds., Stilling the Grumbling Hive: The Responses to Social and Economic Problems in England, 1689-1750 (Stroud, 1992), p. 149.
135. Robert Nelson, Address to Persons of Quality and Estate (1715), p. 8.
136. Rose, 'Origins', p. 173.
137. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse, pp. 143-4 at p. 144.
138. Compare A Settlement of the Mines Late of Sir Carbery Pryse (1698), p. 16
139. A Settlement of the Mine-Adventure (1698), p. 3. The former, signed on 3 Aug. 1698, arranged to set off 1/40 of the clear profits, whereas the latter, signed two months later when the subscription opened, offered 1/12 part.
140. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse, pp. 5-6.
141. H.P. Thompson, Thomas Bray (1954), pp. 43, 61, at p. 61.
142. See A List of All the Adventurers.
143. An Alphabetical List of the Creditors of the Company of Mine-Adventurers of England (1712), pp. 5, 14.
144. Stewart, Rise of Public Science, p. 181.
145. A New Abstract; Scott, Joints-stock Companies, ii. 447.
146. Waller, An Essay on the Value of the Mines, p. 5.
147. CJ, xvi, 360. See also an undated letter: 'I hope you will send us a particular Account of the Mines in yours, that may put Life into us, for we are all dead at present'
148. Waller, Mine Adventure Laid Open, pp. 36-7.
149. The Second Abstract of the State of the Mines of Bwlchyr-Eskir-Hyr (1700), pp. 2, 3.
150. S. Shapin and S. Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, 1985)
151. B.J. Shapiro, A Culture of Fact: England, 1550-1720 (Ithaca, 2000)
152. S. Schaffer, 'A Social History of Plausibility: Country, City and Calculation in Augustan Britain', in A. Wilson, ed., Rethinking Social History: English Society 1570-1920 and Its Interpretation (Manchester, 1993), pp. 128-57.
153. Waller, Mine Adventure Laid Open, pp. 78-80.
154. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse, p. 16.
155. Shiers, A Familiar Discourse, p. 44.
156. The Fourth Abstract of the State of the Mines of Bwlchyr-Eskir-Hyr (1701), p. 3
157. An Abstract of Letters Concerning the Mines (1706), p. 4.
158. L. Daston, 'The Domestication of Risk: Mathematical Probability and Insurance 1650-1830', in L. Kruger, L. Daston and M. Heidelberger, eds., The Probabilistic Revolution (2 vols., Cambridge, MA, 1987), i. 237-60
159. G. Clark, Betting on Lives: The Culture of Life Insurance in England, 1695-1775 (Manchester, 1999).
160. Stephen Primatt, The City and Country Purchaser and Builder (1667), p. 29
161. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, p. 340.
162. See also Heal and Holmes, Gentry, p. 120.
163. M.S.R. Jenner, 'L'Eau Changé en L'Argent? Vendre L'Eau dans les Villes Anglaises au Dix- Septième Siècle', Dix-Septieme Siecle, lv (2003), p. 650.
164. A. Smith, 'Steam and the City: The Committee of Proprietors of the Invention for Raising Water by Fire, 1715-1735', Transactions of Newcomen Society, xlix (1977-8), pp. 5-20.
165. Stewart, Rise of Public Science, pp. 115-116.
166. Waller, Mine Adventure Laid Open, p. 80.
167. Mackworth Diary, fos. 77-8, 80, 98, 99-100, 148.
168. Samuel Jeake, An Astrological Diary of the Seventeenth Century: Samuel Jeake of Rye 1652-1699, ed. M. Hunter and A. Gregory (Oxford, 1988), pp. 1, 6, 8-11
169. B. Worden, 'Providence and Politics in Cromwellian England', Past and Present, cix (1985), p. 55.
170. M. Todd, 'Puritan Self-fashioning: The Diary of Samuel Ward', Journal of British Studies, xxxi (1992), pp. 236-64.
171. J. Spurr, The Restoration Church of England, 1646-1689 (New Haven, 1991), chs. 5-6. Spurr suggests that this doctrine became widespread after the Restoration.
172. A Short Account of the Proceedings of the Select Committee of the Mine Adventurers ... for Lengthening Their Term and Enlarging Their Boundaries (1702), p. 1.
173. See also Rees, Industry, ii. 545.
174. At a Court of Directors of the Governor and Company of the Mine-Adventurers of England [...] on Thursday the 15th Day of June, 1704 (1704), p. 4.
175. See also At a Court of Directors of the Governor and Company of the Mine-Adventurers of England [...] on Thursday the Sixth Day of December, 1704 (1704).
176. Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 451-2
177. Rees, Industry, ii. 549-50, 554-5.
178. CJ, xvi, 362
179. Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 452
180. Rees, Industry, ii. 554.
181. Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 450.
182. Rees, Industry, ii. 524-5.
183. Second Abstract, pp. 14-15.
184. The Third Abstract of the State of the Mines of Bwlchyr-Eskir-Hyr (1700), p. 4
185. C. Trott, 'Copper Industry', in E. Jenkins, ed., Neath and District: A Symposium (Neath, 1974), pp. 124-5.
186. C[alendar of] S[tate] P[aper] D[omestic] 1697, pp. 284, 322
187. CSPD 1702-1703, pp. 420, 488, at p. 420
188. CSPD 1704-1705, pp. 298, 302.
189. Trott, 'Copper Industry', pp. 125-7.
190. Third Abstract, p. 4.
191. M.J.T. Lewis, Early Wooden Railways (1970), pp. 247-50
192. J. Hatcher, The History of the British Coal Industry: I. Before 1700: Towards the Age of Coal (Oxford, 1993), p. 211
193. Lewis, 'Lead Mining', p. 162
194. G.H. Jenkins, The Foundations of Modern Wales, 1642-1780 (Oxford, 1987), p. 121.
195. Lewis, 'Lead Mining', p. 161.
196. P. Jenkins, The Making of a Ruling Class: The Glamorgan Gentry, 1640-1790 (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 59-60
197. John and Williams, Glamorgan County History, v. 481.
198. Phillips, Vale of Neath, pp. 735-6, at p. 736.
199. John and Williams, Glamorgan County History, v. 489.
200. Daniel Defoe, Defoe's Review, ed. A.W. Secord (22 vols., New York, 1938), iii. bk. viii. no. 126, p. 503.
201. Secret Memoirs and Manners of Several Persons of Quality of Both Sexes (1709), pp. 257-8 (see also its index for the identification). For other contemporary accounts
202. Richard Steele, The Tatler, ed. D.F. Bond (3 vols., Oxford, 1987), no. lvii, i. 396-8, no. lxi, i. 420-2
203. John Arbuthnot, The History of John Bull, ed. A.W. Bower and R.A. Erickson (Oxford, 1976), esp. pp. 110-11.
204. Scott, Joint-Stock Companies, ii. 452
205. Ransome, 'The Parliamentary Career', p. 235 n. 16.
206. Hayton, 'Mackworth', iv. 731-4.
207. See Pocock, Virtue, p. 196 (see also ch. 11).
208. M. Peltonen, 'Politeness and Whiggism 1688-1732', Historical Journal, xlviii (2005), p. 407.
209. S. Schaffer, 'Consuming Flame: Electrical Showmen and Tory Mystics in the World of Goods', in J. Brewer and R. Porter, eds., Consumption and the World of Goods (1993), pp. 490, 509-12.
210. J.R. Wigelsworth, 'Bipartisan Politics and Practical Knowledge: Advertising of Public Science in Two London Newspapers, 1695-1720', British Journal for History of Science, xli (2008), pp. 517-540.
211. Quotation is from Pocock, Virtue, p. 216 n. 6. The latest analysis of whig and tory ideologies as the collision of opposing worldviews
212. S. Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution (New Haven, 2009), ch. 12.
213. Hatcher, British Coal Industry, p. 246.
214. Compare J. Thirsk, The Rural Economy of England: Collected Essays (1984), ch. 19
215. L. Pollock, 'Younger Sons in Tudor and Stuart England', History Today, xxxix (1989), pp. 23-9
216. R. Grassby, The English Gentleman in Trade: The Life and Works of Sir Dudley North (Oxford, 1994)
217. S.E. Whyman, 'Land and Trade Revisited: The Case of John Verney, London Merchant and Baronet, 1660-1720', London Journal, xxii (1997), pp. 16-32.
218. H. French and J. Barry, eds., Identity and Agency in England, 1500-1800 (Basingstoke, 2004), pp. 87-105.
219. M. Hunter, Robert Boyle (1627-91): Scrupulosity and Science (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 221, 215.
220. Nelson, Address, pp. 227, 224-5.
221. Quoted by Glaisyer, Culture of Commerce, p. 97.
222. Glaisyer, Culture of Commerce, p. 86.
223. Spurr, Restoration Church, pp. 328-9.
224. B. Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865 (Oxford, 1988)
225. G. Searle, Morality and the Market in Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1998)
226. J. Taylor, Creating Capitalism: Joint-Stock Enterprise in British Politics and Culture, 1800-1870 (Woodbridge, 2006)
227. M.A. Noll, 'Introduction', in id., ed., God and Mammon: Protestants, Money, and the Market, 1790-1860 (Oxford, 2002), p. 8.
228. Clark, Betting on Lives, p. 57.
229. See also Slack, From Reformation to Improvement, pp. 114, 120- 21, 130-31.
230. M. Bevir and F. Trentmann, 'Markets in Historical Contexts: Ideas, Practices and Governance', in idem, eds., Markets in Historical Contexts: Ideas and Practices in the Modern World (Cambridge, 2004), p. 2.