Spatializing the Social Networks of Gangs to Explore Patterns of Violence

Journal of Quantitative Criminology

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 521-545

  Tita, George E ^a   Radil, Steven M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

Gang violence; Neighborhood effects; Social influence; Social networks; Spatial analysis

Indexed keywords

EID: 80255129292     PISSN: 07484518     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10940-011-9136-8     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Anselin L (1988) Spatial econometrics: methods and models. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
2. Anselin L (2002) Under the hood: issues in the specification and interpretation of spatial regression models. Agric Econ 27: 247-267.
3. Anselin L, Syabri I, Kho Y (2006) GeoDa: an introduction to spatial data analysis. Geogr Anal 38: 5-22.
4. Baller RD, Anselin L, Messner SF (2001) Structural covariates of U. S. county homicide rates: incorporating spatial effects. Criminology 39: 561-590.
5. Bellair PE (2000) Informal surveillance and street crime: a complex relationship. Criminology 38: 137-167.
6. Blau JR, Blau PM (1982) The cost of inequality: metropolitan structure and violent crime. Am Sociol Rev 47: 114-129.
7. Bursik R, Grasmick H (1993) Neighborhoods and crime: the dimensions of effective community control. Lexington Books, San Francisco.
8. Case AC, Rosen HS, Hines JR Jr (1993) Budget spillovers and fiscal policy interdependence: evidence from the states. J Public Econ 52: 285-307.
9. Cohen J, Tita G (1999) Diffusion in homicide: exploring a general method for detecting spatial diffusion processes. J Quant Criminol 15: 451-493.
10. Cohen J, Cork D, Engberg J, Tita G (1998) The role of drug markets and gangs in local homicide rates. Homicide Stud 2: 241-262.
11. Cork D (1999) Examining space-time interaction in city-level homicide data: crack markets and the diffusion of guns among youth. J Quant Criminol 5: 379-406.
12. Decker S (1996) Collective and normative features of gang violence. Justice Q 13: 243-264.
13. Dekker D, Krackhardt D, Snijders TAB (2007) Sensitivity of MRQAP tests to collinearity and autocorrelation conditions. Psychometrika 72: 563-581.
14. Doreian P, Batageli V, Ferligoj A (2005) Positional analyses of sociometric data. In: Carrington PJ, Scott J, Wasserman S (eds) Models and methods in social network analysis. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 77-97.
15. Ettlinger N, Bosco FJ (2004) Thinking through networks and their spatiality: a critique of the US (public) war on terrorism and its geographic discourse. Antipode 36: 249-271.
16. Feld S (1981) The focused organization of social ties. Am J Sociol 86: 1015-1035.
17. Florax R, Rey S (1995) The impacts of misspecified spatial interaction in linear regression models. In: Anselin L, Florax R (eds) New directions in spatial econometrics. Springer, Berlin, pp 111-135.
18. Gehlke C, Biehl K (1934) Certain effects of grouping upon the size of the correlation coefficient in census tract material. J Am Stat Assoc 29: 169-170.
19. Getis A, Aldstadt J (2004) Constructing the spatial weights matrix using a local statistic. Geogr Anal 36: 90-104.
20. Goodchild MF (2004) GIScience, geography, form, and process. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 94: 709-714.
21. Gould R (1991) Multiple networks and mobilization in the Paris Commune, 1870. Am Sociol Rev 56: 716-729.
22. Greenbaum RT (2002) A spatial study of teachers' salaries in Pennsylvania school districts. J Labor Res 23: 69-86.
23. Griffith DA (1983) The boundary value problem in spatial statistical analysis. J Reg Sci 23: 377-378.
24. Griffiths E, Chavez JM (2004) Communities, street guns and homicide trajectories in Chicago, 1980-1995: merging methods for examining homicide trends across space and time. Criminology 42: 941-975.
25. Hipp JR (2007) Block, tract, and levels of aggregation: neighborhood structure and crime and disorder as a case in point. Am Sociol Rev 72: 659-680.
26. Kennedy D, Braga A, Piehl A (1997) Mapping gangs and gang violence in Boston. In: Weisburd D, McEwan T (eds) Crime mapping & crime prevention. Justice Press, Monsey, pp 219-262.
27. Klein MW (1971) Street gangs and street workers. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
28. Klein MW (1995) The American street gang: Its nature, prevalence and control. Oxford University Press, New York.
29. Krivo LJ, Peterson RD (1996) Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban crime. Soc Forces 75: 619-650.
30. Kubrin CE, Weitzer R (2003) Retaliatory homicide: concentrated disadvantage and neighborhood culture. Soc Probl 50: 157-180.
31. Land KC, Deane G (1992) On the large-sample estimation of regression models with spatial effects terms: a two-stage least squares approach. Sociol Methodol 22: 221-248.
32. Land KC, McCall PL, Cohen L (1990) Structural covariates of homicide rates: are there any invariances across time and social space? Am J Sociol 95: 922-963.
33. Leenders RTAJ (2002) Modeling social influence through network autocorrelation: constructing the weight matrix. Soc Netw 24: 21-47.
34. Loftin C (1986) Assaultive violence as a contagious process. Bull N Y Acad Med 62: 550-555.
35. Marsden PV, Friedkin NE (1994) Network studies of social influence. In: Wasserman S, Galaskiewicz J (eds) Advances in social network analysis. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 3-25.
36. McGloin JM (2005) Policy and intervention considerations of a network analysis of street gangs. Criminol Public Policy 4: 607-636.
37. McPherson M, Smith-Lovin L, Cook JM (2001) Birds of a feather: homophily in social networks. Annu Rev Sociol 27: 415-444.
38. Mears DP, Bhati AS (2006) No community is an island: the effects of resource deprivation on urban violence in spatially and socially proximate communities. Criminology 44: 509-548.
39. Meyers MK, Heintze T, WolfChild DA (2002) Care subsidies and the employment of welfare recipients. Demography 39: 165-179.
40. Moore J (1985) Isolation and stigmatization in the development of an underclass: the case of Chicano gangs in East Los Angeles. Soc Probl 33: 1-12.
41. Moore J (1991) Going down to the barrio: homeboys and homegirls in change. Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
42. Morenoff JD (2003) Neighborhood mechanisms and the spatial dynamics of birth weight. Am J Sociol 5: 976-1017.
43. Morenoff JD, Sampson RJ (1997) Violent crime and the spatial dynamics of neighborhood transition: Chicago, 1970-1990. Soc Forces 76: 31-64.
44. Morenoff JD, Sampson RJ (2004) Spatial (dis)advantage and homicide in Chicago neighborhoods. In: Goodchild MF, Janelle DG (eds) Spatially integrated social science. Oxford Press, New York, pp 145-170.
45. Morenoff JD, Sampson RJ, Raudenbush S (2001) Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology 39: 517-560.
46. Murphy KM, Topel RH (1985) Estimation and inference in two-step econometric models. J Bus Econ Stat 3: 370-379.
47. Newman D (2006) The resilience of territorial conflict in an era of globalization. In: Kahler M (ed) Territoriality and conflict in an era of globalization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 85-110.
48. Openshaw S (1996) Developing GIS-relevant zone-based spatial analysis methods. In: Longley P, Batty M (eds) Spatial analysis: modeling in a GIS environment. Wiley, New York, pp 55-73.
49. Papachristos AV (2009) Murder by structure: dominance relations and the social structure of gang homicide. Am J Sociol 115: 74-128.
50. Piras G, Lozano-Gracia N (2008) Spatial J-test: some Monte Carlo evidence. Stat Comput.
51. Radil SM, Flint C, Tita G (2010) Spatializing social networks: geographies of gang rivalry, territoriality, and violence in Los Angeles. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 100: 307-326.
52. Reiss AJ, Farrington DP (1991) Advancing knowledge about co-offending: results from a prospective longitudinal survey of London males. J Crim Law Criminol 82: 360-395.
53. Robinson W (1950) Ecological correlation and the behavior of individuals. Am Sociol Rev 15: 351-357.
54. Rosenfeld R, Bray T, Egley A (1999) Facilitating violence: a comparison of gang-motivated, gang-affiliated, and non-gang youth homicides. J Quant Criminol 5: 495-516.
55. Sack RD (1986) Human territoriality: its theory and history. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
56. Sampson RJ (1986) Crime in cities: formal and informal social control. In: Reiss AJ Jr, Michael T (eds) Communities and crime. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 271-311.
57. Sampson RJ (1988) Local friendship ties and community attachment in mass society: a multi level systemic model. Am J Sociol 53: 766-779.
58. Sampson RJ (2004) Networks and neighbourhoods: the implications of connectivity for thinking about crime in the modern city. In: McCarthy H, Miller P, Skidmore P (eds) Network logic: who governs in an interconnected world? Demos, London, pp 157-166.
59. Sampson RJ, Groves WB (1989) Community structure and crime: testing social-disorganization theory. Am J Sociol 94: 774-802.
60. Sampson RJ, Sharkey P (2008) Neighborhood selection and the social reproduction of concentrated racial inequality. Demography 45: 1-29.
61. Sampson RJ, Raudenbush S, Earls F (1997) Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277: 918-924.
62. Sampson RJ, Morenoff JD, Gannon-Rowley T (2002) Assessing "neighborhood effects": social processes and new directions in research. Annu Rev Sociol 28: 443-478.
63. Shaw CR, McKay H (1942) Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
64. StataCorp (2005) Statistical software: release 8. 0. Stata Corporation, College Station.
65. Taylor RB, Gottfredson S, Brower S (1984) Block crime and fear: defensible space, local social ties, and territorial functioning. J Res Crime Delinq 21: 303-331.
66. Thornberry TP, Krohn MD, Lizotte AJ, Smith CA, Tobin K (2003) Gangs and delinquency in developmental perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
67. Tita G, Cohen J (2004) Measuring spatial diffusion of shots fired activity across city neighborhoods. In: Goodchild MF, Janelle DG (eds) Spatially integrated social science. Oxford Press, New York, pp 171-204.
68. Tita G, Greenbaum RT (2009) Crime, neighborhoods, and units of analysis: putting space in its place. In: Weisburd D, Bernasco W, Bruinsma GJN (eds) Putting crime in its place: units of analysis in spatial crime research. Springer, New York, pp 145-170.
69. Tita G, Ridgeway G (2007) The impact of gang formation on local patterns of crime. J Res Crime Delinq 44: 208-237.
70. Tita G, Riley KJ, Greenwood P (2002) From Boston to Boyle Heights: The process and prospects of a 'pulling levers' strategy in a Los Angeles barrio. In: Decker S (ed) Gangs, youth violence and community policing. Wadsworth Press, Belmont, pp 102-130.
71. Tita G, Riley KJ, Ridgeway G, Grammich C, Abrahamse AF, Greenwood P (2003) Reducing gun violence: results from an intervention in East Los Angeles. RAND Press, Santa Monica.
72. Tita G, Cohen J, Engberg J (2005) An ecological study of the location of gang 'set space'. Soc Probl 52: 272-299.
73. Tobler W (1970) A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region. Econ Geogr 46: 234-240.
74. Veysey BM, Messner SF (1999) Further testing of social disorganization theory: an elaboration of Sampson and Groves' 'Community structure and crime'. J Res Crime Delinq 36: 147-156.
75. Vigil JD (1988) Barrio gangs: street life and identity in Southern California. University of Texas Press, Austin.
76. Vigil JD (2002) A rainbow of gangs: street cultures in the mega-city. University of Texas Press, Austin.
77. Ward MD, Gleditsch K (2008) Spatial regression models. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
78. Weisburd D, Bernasco W, Bruinsma GJN (eds) (2009) Putting crime in its place: units of analysis in spatial crime research. Springer, New York.
79. Weisburd D, Bushway S, Lum C, Yang S-M (2006) Trajectories of crime at places: a longitudinal study of street segments in the city of Seattle. Criminology 42: 283-322.
80. Whyte WF (1943) Street corner society. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
81. Wilkinson D, Fagan J (1996) Understanding the role of firearms in violence scripts: the dynamics of gun events among adolescent males. Law Contemp Probl 59: 55-90.