Diagnosis and management of venous thromboembolism: An update a decade into the new millennium

Archives of Iranian Medicine

Volumn 14, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 341-351

  Emadi, Ashkan ^a   Streiff, Michael ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; ANTIVITAMIN K; ARGATROBAN; CIMETIDINE; CLOFIBRATE; COLESTIPOL; COLESTYRAMINE; DALTEPARIN; ENOXAPARIN; FLUCONAZOLE; FONDAPARINUX; GLUTETHIMIDE; GRISEOFULVIN; HEPARIN; HEPARIN DERIVATIVE; HIRULOG; LEPIRUDIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; MICONAZOLE; OMEPRAZOLE; PARACETAMOL; PHENYLBUTAZONE; PHENYTOIN; PLACEBO; PROPAFENONE; RIFAMPICIN; TAMOXIFEN; TINZAPARIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; WARFARIN;

ANAPHYLAXIS; ANEMIA; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; ANTICOAGULATION; ANTITHROMBIN DEFICIENCY; BLEEDING; CLINICAL EVALUATION; COMPRESSION GARMENT; COMPRESSION THERAPY; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DOSAGE SCHEDULE COMPARISON; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE; FOOD DRUG INTERACTION; GENE MUTATION; HEMOSTASIS; HEPARIN INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA; HETEROZYGOSITY; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPERTRANSAMINASEMIA; INCIDENCE; INFERIOR CAVA VEIN; INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUNG EMBOLISM; OSTEOPOROSIS; PARTIAL THROMBOPLASTIN TIME; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POPLITEAL VEIN; PROTEIN C DEFICIENCY; PROTEIN S DEFICIENCY; PURPURA; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SEPSIS; THROMBIN TIME; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATION; THROMBOPHILIA; TREATMENT DURATION; URTICARIA; VENA CAVA FILTER; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

AGE FACTORS; ANTICOAGULANTS; BLOOD COAGULATION; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; EXTREMITIES; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HEALTH CARE COSTS; HUMANS; INTERMITTENT PNEUMATIC COMPRESSION DEVICES; MALE; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PULMONARY EMBOLISM; REGIONAL BLOOD FLOW; RISK FACTORS; VEINS; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 80053045335     PISSN: 10292977     EISSN: 17353947     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Heit JA. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism in the community. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008; 28: 370-372.
2. Spyropoulos AC, Lin J. Direct medical costs of venous thromboembolism and subsequent hospital readmission rates: an administrative claims analysis from 30 managed care organizations. J Manag Care Pharm. 2007; 13: 475-486.
3. Silverstein MD, Heit JA, Mohr DN, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ, 3rd. Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a 25-year population-based study. Arch Intern Med. 1998; 158: 585-593.
4. Heit JA, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ, 3rd. Risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160: 809-815.
5. Philbrick JT, Shumate R, Siadaty MS, Becker DM. Air travel and venous thromboembolism: a systematic review. J Gen Intern Med. 2007; 22: 107-114.
6. Heit JA, O'Fallon WM, Petterson TM, Lohse CM, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, et al. Relative impact of risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 1245-1248.
7. Heit JA, Melton LJ 3rd, Lohse CM, Petterson TM, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients vs community residents. Mayo Clin Proc. 2001; 76: 1102-1110.
8. Rogers SO Jr., Kilaru RK, Hosokawa P, Henderson WG, Zinner MJ, Khuri SF. Multivariable predictors of postoperative venous thromboembolic events after general and vascular surgery: results from the patient safety in surgery study. J Am Coll Surg. 2007; 204: 1211-1221.
9. Furie B, Furie BC. Mechanisms of thrombus formation. N Engl J Med. 2008; 359: 938-949.
10. Dubois C, Panicot-Dubois L, Merrill-Skoloff G, Furie B, Furie BC. Glycoprotein VI-dependent and -independent pathways of thrombus formation in vivo. Blood. 2006; 107: 3902-3906.
11. Vu TK, Hung DT, Wheaton VI, Coughlin SR. Molecular cloning of a functional thrombin receptor reveals a novel proteolytic mechanism of receptor activation. Cell. 1991; 64: 1057-1068.
12. Du X, Gu M, Weisel JW, Nagaswami C, Bennett JS, Bowditch R, et al. Long range propagation of conformational changes in integrin alpha IIb beta 3. J Biol Chem. 1993; 268: 23087-23092.
13. Goto S, Ikeda Y, Saldivar E, Ruggeri ZM. Distinct mechanisms of platelet aggregation as a consequence of different shearing _ow conditions. J Clin Invest. 1998; 101: 479-486.
14. Ni H, Denis CV, Subbarao S, Degen JL, Sato TN, Hynes RO, et al. Persistence of platelet thrombus formation in arterioles of mice lacking both von Willebrand factor and _brinogen. J Clin Invest. 2000; 106: 385-392.
15. Semeraro N, Biondi A, Lorenzet R, Locati D, Mantovani A, Donati MB. Direct induction of tissue factor synthesis by endotoxin in human macrophages from diverse anatomical sites. Immunology. 1983; 50: 529-535.
16. Giesen PL, Rauch U, Bohrmann B, Kling D, Roque M, Fallon JT, et al. Blood-borne tissue factor: another view of thrombosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999; 96: 2311-2315.
17. Gross PL, Furie BC, Merrill-Skoloff G, Chou J, Furie B. Leukocyteversus microparticle-mediated tissue factor transfer during arteriolar thrombus development. J Leukoc Biol. 2005; 78: 1318-1326.
18. Bach R, Rifkin DB. Expression of tissue factor procoagulant activity: regulation by cytosolic calcium. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990; 87: 6995-6999.
19. Schmidt B, Ho L, Hogg PJ. Allosteric disul_de bonds. Biochemistry. 2006; 45: 7429-7433.
20. Reinhardt C, von Bruhl ML, Manukyan D, Grahl L, Lorenz M, Altmann B, et al. Protein disul_de isomerase acts as an injury response signal that enhances _brin generation via tissue factor activation. J Clin Invest. 2008; 118: 1110-1122.
21. Furie B, Furie BC. Molecular and cellular biology of blood coagulation. N Engl J Med. 1992; 326: 800-806.
22. Cho J, Furie BC, Coughlin SR, Furie B. A critical role for extracellular protein disul_de isomerase during thrombus formation in mice. J Clin Invest. 2008; 118: 1123-1131.
23. Morrissey JH, Macik BG, Neuenschwander PF, Comp PC. Quantitation of activated factor VII levels in plasma using a tissue factor mutant selectively de_cient in promoting factor VII activation. Blood. 1993; 81: 734-744.
24. Osterud B, Rapaport SI. Activation of factor IX by the reaction product of tissue factor and factor VII: additional pathway for initiating blood coagulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977; 74: 5260-5264.
25. Gailani D, Broze GJ, Jr. Factor XI activation in a revised model of blood coagulation. Science. 1991; 253: 909-912.
26. Orfeo T, Butenas S, Brummel-Ziedins KE, Mann KG. The tissue factor requirement in blood coagulation. J Biol Chem. 2005; 280: 42887-42896.
27. Dentali F, Douketis JD, Gianni M, Lim W, Crowther MA. Meta-analysis: anticoagulant prophylaxis to prevent symptomatic venous thromboembolism in hospitalized medical patients. Ann Intern Med. 2007; 146: 278-288.
28. Prevention of fatal postoperative pulmonary embolism by low doses of heparin. An international multicentre trial. Lancet. 1975; 2: 45-51.
29. Leonardi MJ, McGory ML, Ko CY. The rate of bleeding complications after pharmacologic deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis: a systematic review of 33 randomized controlled trials. Arch Surg. 2006; 141: 790-799.
30. Wein L, Wein S, Haas SJ, Shaw J, Krum H. Pharmacological venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in hospitalized medical patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2007; 167: 1476-1486.
31. Nurmohamed MT, Rosendaal FR, Buller HR, Dekker E, Hommes DW, Vandenbroucke JP, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin versus standard heparin in general and orthopaedic surgery: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 1992; 340: 152-156.
32. King CS, Holley AB, Jackson JL, Shorr AF, Moores LK. Twice vs. three times daily heparin dosing for thromboembolism prophylaxis in the general medical population: a metaanalysis. Chest. 2007; 131: 507-516.
33. Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pineo GF, Heit JA, Samama CM, Lassen MR, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008; 133 (6 suppl): 381S-453S.
34. Segal JB, Brotman DJ, Necochea AJ, Emadi A, Samal L, Wilson LM, et al. Predictive value of factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A in adults with venous thromboembolism and in family members of those with a mutation: a systematic review. JAMA. 2009; 301: 2472-2485.
35. Schulman S, Beyth RJ, Kearon C, Levine MN. Hemorrhagic complications of anticoagulant and thrombolytic treatment: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008; 133 (6 suppl): 257S-98S.
36. Prandoni P, Noventa F, Ghirarduzzi A, Pengo V, Bernardi E, Pesavento R, et al. The risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism after discontinuing anticoagulation in patients with acute proximal deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. A prospective cohort study in 1,626 patients. Haematologica. 2007; 92: 199-205.
37. Rodger MA, Kahn SR, Wells PS, Anderson DA, Chagnon I, Le Gal G, et al. Identifying unprovoked thromboembolism patients at low risk for recurrence who can discontinue anticoagulant therapy. CMAJ. 2008; 179: 417-426.
38. Eichinger S, Heinze G, Jandeck LM, Kyrle PA. Risk assessment of recurrence in patients with unprovoked deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: the Vienna prediction model. Circulation. 2010; 121(14):1630-1636.
39. Federman DG, Kirsner RS. An update on hypercoagulable disorders. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161: 1051-1056.
40. Ridker PM, Miletich JP, Hennekens CH, Buring JE. Ethnic distribution of factor V Leiden in 4047 men and women. Implications for venous thromboembolism screening. JAMA. 1997; 277: 1305-1307.
41. Emadi A, Crim MT, Brotman DJ, Necochea AJ, Samal L, Wilson LM, et al. Analytic validity of genetic tests to identify factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A. Am J Hematol. 2010; 85: 264-270.
42. Chang MH, Lindegren ML, Butler MA, Chanock SJ, Dowling NF, Gallagher M, et al. Prevalence in the United States of selected candidate gene variants: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1991-1994. Am J Epidemiol. 2009; 169: 54-66.
43. Simioni P, Prandoni P, Lensing AW, Manfrin D, Tormene D, Gavasso S, et al. Risk for subsequent venous thromboembolic complications in carriers of the prothrombin or the factor V gene mutation with a _rst episode of deep-vein thrombosis. Blood. 2000; 96: 3329-3333.
44. Palareti G, Legnani C, Cosmi B, Valdre L, Lunghi B, Bernardi F, et al. Predictive value of D-dimer test for recurrent venous thromboembolism after anticoagulation withdrawal in subjects with a previous idiopathic event and in carriers of congenital thrombophilia. Circulation. 2003; 108: 313-318.
45. Miles JS, Miletich JP, Goldhaber SZ, Hennekens CH, Ridker PM. G20210A mutation in the prothrombin gene and the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 37: 215-218.
46. Khan S, Dickerman JD. Hereditary thrombophilia. Thromb J. 2006; 4: 15.
47. Petitou M, Casu B, Lindahl U. 1976-1983, a critical period in the history of heparin: the discovery of the antithrombin binding site. Biochimie. 2003; 85: 83-89.
48. Harper PL, Luddington RJ, Daly M, Bruce D, Williamson D, Edgar PF, et al. The incidence of dysfunctional antithrombin variants: four cases in 210 patients with thromboembolic disease. Br J Haematol. 1991; 77: 360-364.
49. Hellgren M, Tengborn L, Abildgaard U. Pregnancy in women with congenital antithrombin III de_ciency: experience of treatment with heparin and antithrombin. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1982; 14: 127-141.
50. Blauhut B, Necek S, Vinazzer H, Bergmann H. Substitution therapy with an antithrombin III concentrate in shock and DIC. Thromb Res. 1982; 27: 271-278.
51. Fourrier F, Chopin C, Huart JJ, Runge I, Caron C, Goudemand J. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of antithrombin III concentrates in septic shock with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Chest. 1993; 104: 882-888.
52. Baudo F, Caimi TM, de Cataldo F, Ravizza A, Arlati S, Casella G, et al. Antithrombin III (ATIII) replacement therapy in patients with sepsis and/or postsurgical complications: a controlled double-blind, randomized, multicenter study. Intensive Care Med. 1998; 24: 336-342.
53. Eisele B, Lamy M, Thijs LG, Keinecke HO, Schuster HP, Matthias FR, et al. Antithrombin III in patients with severe sepsis. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind multicenter trial plus a meta-analysis on all randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trials with antithrombin III in severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 1998; 24: 663-672.
54. Warren BL, Eid A, Singer P, Pillay SS, Carl P, Novak I, et al. Caring for the critically ill patient. High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001; 286: 1869-1878.
55. Afshari A, Wetterslev J, Brok J, Moller AM. Antithrombin III for critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(3):CD005370.
56. Kearon C, Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J. The role of venous ultrasonography in the diagnosis of suspected deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 1998; 129: 1044-1049.
57. Goodacre S, Sutton AJ, Sampson FC. Meta-analysis: the value of clinical assessment in the diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 2005; 143: 129-139.
58. Wells PS, Hirsh J, Anderson DR, Lensing AW, Foster G, Kearon C, et al. Accuracy of clinical assessment of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1995; 345: 1326-1330.
59. Oudega R, Hoes AW, Moons KG. The Wells rule does not adequately rule out deep venous thrombosis in primary care patients. Ann Intern Med. 2005; 143: 100-107.
60. Kahn SR, Joseph L, Abenhaim L, Leclerc JR. Clinical prediction of deep vein thrombosis in patients with leg symptoms. Thromb Haemost. 1999; 81: 353-357.
61. Constans J, Nelzy ML, Salmi LR, Skopinski S, Saby JC, Le Metayer P, et al. Clinical prediction of lower limb deep vein thrombosis in symptomatic hospitalized patients. Thromb Haemost. 2001; 86:985-990.
62. Constans J, Boutinet C, Salmi LR, Saby JC, Nelzy ML, Baudouin P, et al. Comparison of four clinical prediction scores for the diagnosis of lower limb deep venous thrombosis in outpatients. Am J Med. 2003; 115: 436-440.
63. Stein PD, Hull RD, Patel KC, Olson RE, Ghali WA, Brant R, et al. D-dimer for the exclusion of acute venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2004; 140: 589-602.
64. Raskob GE, Silverstein R, Bratzler DW, Heit JA, White RH. Surveillance for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: recommendations from a national workshop. Am J Prev Med. 2010; 38 (4 Suppl): S502-S509.
65. Anderson DR, Kahn SR, Rodger MA, Kovacs MJ, Morris T, Hirsch A, et al. Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography vs ventilationperfusion lung scanning in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2007; 298: 2743-2753.
66. Goodacre S, Sampson F, Thomas S, van Beek E, Sutton A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasonography for deep vein thrombosis. BMC Med Imaging. 2005; 5: 6.
67. Lensing AW, Prandoni P, Brandjes D, Huisman PM, Vigo M, Tomasella G, et al. Detection of deep-vein thrombosis by real-time B-mode ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 342-345.
68. Qaseem A, Snow V, Barry P, Hornbake ER, Rodnick JE, Tobolic T, et al. Current diagnosis of venous thromboembolism in primary care: a clinical practice guideline from the American Academy of Family Physicians and the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2007; 146: 454-458.
69. Goodacre S, Sampson F, Stevenson M, Wailoo A, Sutton A, Thomas S, et al. Measurement of the clinical and cost-effectiveness of noninvasive diagnostic testing strategies for deep vein thrombosis. Health Technol Assess. 2006; 10: 1-168, iii-iv.
70. Sampson FC, Goodacre SW, Thomas SM, van Beek EJ. The accuracy of MRI in diagnosis of suspected deep vein thrombosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol. 2007; 17: 175-181.
71. Stein PD, Fowler SE, Goodman LR, Gottschalk A, Hales CA, Hull RD, et al. Multidetector computed tomography for acute pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 2317-2327.
72. Perrier A, Bounameaux H. Accuracy or outcome in suspected pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 2383-2385.
73. Kearon C, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, Goldhaber S, Raskob GE, Comerota AJ. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008; 133(6 Suppl): 454S-545S.
74. Elliott G. Upper-extremity deep vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1997; 349: 1188-1189.
75. Joffe HV, Goldhaber SZ. Upper-extremity deep vein thrombosis. Circulation.2002; 106: 1874-1880.
76. Baarslag HJ, Koopman MM, Reekers JA, van Beek EJ. Diagnosis and management of deep vein thrombosis of the upper extremity: a review. Eur Radiol. 2004; 14: 1263-1274.
77. Segal JB, Streiff MB, Hofmann LV, Thornton K, Bass EB. Management of venous thromboembolism: a systematic review for a practice guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2007; 146: 211-222.
78. Buller HR, Davidson BL, Decousus H, Gallus A, Gent M, Piovella F, et al. Fondaparinux or enoxaparin for the initial treatment of symptomatic deep venous thrombosis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2004; 140: 867-873.
79. Plate G, Einarsson E, Ohlin P, Jensen R, Qvarfordt P, Eklof B. Thrombectomy with temporary arteriovenous _stula: the treatment of choice in acute iliofemoral venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 1984; 1: 867-876.
80. Plate G, Akesson H, Einarsson E, Ohlin P, Eklof B. Long-term results of venous thrombectomy combined with a temporary arterio-venous _stula. Eur J Vasc Surg. 1990; 4: 483-489.
81. Plate G, Eklof B, Norgren L, Ohlin P, Dahlstrom JA. Venous thrombectomy for iliofemoral vein thrombosis--10-year results of a prospective randomised study. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 1997; 14: 367-374.
82. Elsharawy M, Elzayat E. Early results of thrombolysis vs anticoagulation in iliofemoral venous thrombosis. A randomised clinical trial. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2002; 24: 209-214.
83. Linkins LA, Choi PT, Douketis JD. Clinical impact of bleeding in patients taking oral anticoagulant therapy for venous thromboembolism: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139: 893-900.
84. Hyers TM, Agnelli G, Hull RD, Weg JG, Morris TA, Samama M, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease. Chest. 1998; 114 (5 Suppl): 561S-78S.
85. Hirsh J, Hoak J. Management of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. A statement for healthcare professionals. Council on Thrombosis (in consultation with the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology), American Heart Association. Circulation. 1996; 93: 2212-2245.
86. Kearon C. Duration of anticoagulation for venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2001; 12: 59-65.
87. Bates SM, Ginsberg JS. Clinical practice. Treatment of deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 2004; 351: 268-277.
88. Palareti G, Cosmi B, Legnani C, Tosetto A, Brusi C, Iorio A, et al. Ddimer testing to determine the duration of anticoagulation therapy. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355: 1780-1789.
89. Brandjes DP, Buller HR, Heijboer H, Huisman MV, de Rijk M, Jagt H, et al. Randomised trial of effect of compression stockings in patients with symptomatic proximal-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1997; 349: 759-762.
90. Prandoni P, Lensing AW, Prins MH, Frulla M, Marchiori A, Bernardi E, et al. Below-knee elastic compression stockings to prevent the postthrombotic syndrome: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2004; 141: 249-256.
91. Tagalakis V, Kahn SR, Libman M, Blostein M. The epidemiology of peripheral vein infusion thrombophlebitis: a critical review. Am J Med. 2002; 113 (2): 146-151.
92. Becherucci A, Bagilet D, Marenghini J, Diab M, Biancardi H. Effect of topical and oral diclofenac on super_cial thrombophlebitis caused by intravenous infusion. Med Clin (Barc). 2000; 114: 371-373.
93. Vilardell M, Sabat D, Arnaiz JA, Bleda MJ, Castel JM, Laporte JR, et al. Topical heparin for the treatment of acute super_cial phlebitis secondary to indwelling intravenous catheter. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1999; 54: 917-921.
94. Di Nisio M, Middeldorp S, Wichers IM. Treatment for super_cial thrombophlebitis of the leg. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007(1): CD004982.
95. Di Nisio M, Wichers IM, Middeldorp S. Treatment for super_cial thrombophlebitis of the leg. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007(2): CD004982.
96. A pilot randomized double-blind comparison of a low-molecular weight heparin, a nonsteroidal anti-in_ammatory agent, and placebo in the treatment of super_cial vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 2003; 163: 1657-16563.
97. Marchiori A, Verlato F, Sabbion P, Camporese G, Rosso F, Mosena L, et al. High versus low doses of unfractionated heparin for the treatment of super_cial thrombophlebitis of the leg. A prospective, controlled, randomized study. Haematologica. 2002; 87: 523-527.
98. Belcaro G, Nicolaides AN, Errichi BM, Cesarone MR, De Sanctis MT, Incandela L, et al. Super_cial thrombophlebitis of the legs: a randomized, controlled, follow-up study. Angiology. 1999; 50: 523-529.
99. Decousus H, Prandoni P, Mismetti P, Bauersachs RM, Boda Z, Brenner B, et al. Fondaparinux for the treatment of super_cial-vein thrombosis in the legs. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363: 1222-1232.
100. Ray CE Jr., Prochazka A. The need for anticoagulation following inferior vena cava _lter placement: systematic review. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2008; 31: 316-324.
101. Agnelli G, Becattini C, Kirschstein T. Thrombolysis vs heparin in the treatment of pulmonary embolism: a clinical outcome-based metaanalysis. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 2537-2541.
102. Dong B, Jirong Y, Liu G, Wang Q, Wu T. Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006(2): CD004437.
103. Wan S, Quinlan DJ, Agnelli G, Eikelboom JW. Thrombolysis compared with heparin for the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis of the randomized controlled trials. Circulation. 2004; 110: 744-749.
104. Kucher N, Rossi E, De Rosa M, Goldhaber SZ. Massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2006; 113: 577-582.
105. Goldhaber SZ, Visani L, De Rosa M. Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER). Lancet. 1999; 353: 1386-1389.
106. Douketis JD, Leeuwenkamp O, Grobara P, Johnston M, Sohne M, Ten Wolde M, et al. The incidence and prognostic signi_cance of elevated cardiac troponins in patients with submassive pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost. 2005; 3: 508-513.
107. Giannitsis E, Katus HA. Risk strati_cation in pulmonary embolism based on biomarkers and echocardiography. Circulation. 2005; 112: 1520-1521.
108. Becattini C, Vedovati MC, Agnelli G. Prognostic value of troponins in acute pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. Circulation. 2007; 116: 427-433.
109. Goldhaber SZ. Echocardiography in the management of pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 2002; 136: 691-700.
110. Schoepf UJ, Kucher N, Kipfmueller F, Quiroz R, Costello P, Goldhaber SZ. Right ventricular enlargement on chest computed tomography: a predictor of early death in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2004; 110: 3276-3280.
111. Quiroz R, Kucher N, Schoepf UJ, Kipfmueller F, Solomon SD, Costello P, et al. Right ventricular enlargement on chest computed tomography: prognostic role in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2004; 109: 2401-2404.
112. Donze J, Le Gal G, Fine MJ, Roy PM, Sanchez O, Verschuren F, et al. Prospective validation of the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index. A clinical prognostic model for pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 2008; 100: 943-948.
113. Kanter DS, Mikkola KM, Patel SR, Parker JA, Goldhaber SZ. Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism. Frequency of intracranial hemorrhage and associated risk factors. Chest. 1997; 111: 1241-1245.
114. Urokinase-streptokinase embolism trial. Phase 2 results. A cooperative study. JAMA. 1974; 229: 1606-1613.
115. Goldhaber SZ, Agnelli G, Levine MN. Reduced dose bolus alteplase vs conventional alteplase infusion for pulmonary embolism thrombolysis. An international multicenter randomized trial. The Bolus Alteplase Pulmonary Embolism Group. Chest. 1994; 106: 718-724.
116. Goldhaber SZ, Kessler CM, Heit J, Markis J, Sharma GV, Dawley D, et al. Randomised controlled trial of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus urokinase in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1988; 2: 293-298.
117. Goldhaber SZ, Kessler CM, Heit JA, Elliott CG, Friedenberg WR, Heiselman DE, et al. Recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator versus a novel dosing regimen of urokinase in acute pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled multicenter trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992; 20: 24-30.
118. Meneveau N, Schiele F, Metz D, Valette B, Attali P, Vuillemenot A, et al. Comparative ef_cacy of a two-hour regimen of streptokinase versus alteplase in acute massive pulmonary embolism: immediate clinical and hemodynamic outcome and one-year follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1057-1063.
119. Meneveau N, Schiele F, Vuillemenot A, Valette B, Grollier G, Bernard Y, et al. Streptokinase vs alteplase in massive pulmonary embolism. A randomized trial assessing right heart haemodynamics and pulmonary vascular obstruction. Eur Heart J. 1997; 18: 1141-1148.
120. Meyer G, Sors H, Charbonnier B, Kasper W, Bassand JP, Kerr IH, et al. Effects of intravenous urokinase versus alteplase on total pulmonary resistance in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a European multicenter double-blind trial. The European Cooperative Study Group for Pulmonary Embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992; 19: 239-245.
121. Sors H, Pacouret G, Azarian R, Meyer G, Charbonnier B, Simonneau G. Hemodynamic effects of bolus vs 2-h infusion of alteplase in acute massive pulmonary embolism. A randomized controlled multicenter trial. Chest. 1994; 106: 712-717.
122. Verstraete M, Miller GA, Bounameaux H, Charbonnier B, Colle JP, Lecorf G, et al. Intravenous and intrapulmonary recombinant tissuetype plasminogen activator in the treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 1988; 77: 353-360.
123. Eisert WG, Hauel N, Stangier J, Wienen W, Clemens A, van Ryn J. Dabigatran: an oral novel potent reversible nonpeptide inhibitor of thrombin. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010; 30:1885-1889.
124. van Ryn J, Stangier J, Haertter S, Liesenfeld KH, Wienen W, Feuring M, et al. Dabigatran etexilate--a novel, reversible, oral direct thrombin inhibitor: interpretation of coagulation assays and reversal of anticoagulant activity. Thromb Haemost. 2010; 103: 1116-1127.
125. Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, Eikelboom J, Oldgren J, Parekh A, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial _brillation. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361: 1139-1151.
126. Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Mismetti P, Schellong S, Eriksson H, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361: 2342-2352.
127. Kakkar AK, Brenner B, Dahl OE, Eriksson BI, Mouret P, Muntz J, et al. Extended duration rivaroxaban versus short-term enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip arthroplasty: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2008; 372: 31-39.
128. Turpie AG, Lassen MR, Davidson BL, Bauer KA, Gent M, Kwong LM, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty (RECORD4): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2009; 373: 1673-1680.
129. Bauersachs R, Berkowitz SD, Brenner B, Buller HR, Decousus H, Gallus AS, et al. Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363: 2499-2510.
130. Galanis T, Thomson L, Palladino M, Merli GJ. New oral anticoagulants. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2011; 31: 310-320.
131. Nutescu E, Chuatrisorn I, Hellenbart E. Drug and dietary interactionsof warfarin and novel oral anticoagulants: an update. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2011; 31: 326-343.