Physical Activity and the Achievement Gap Among Urban Minority Youth

Journal of School Health

Volumn 81, Issue 10, 2011, Pages 626-634

  Basch, Charles E ^a  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

Author keywords

Academic achievement; Achievement gap; Child and adolescent health; Cognition; Coordinated school health programs; Physical activity; Physical fitness; School absenteeism; School connectedness; Socioeconomic factors

Indexed keywords

ABSENTEEISM; ACHIEVEMENT; ADOLESCENT; AGE; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD WELFARE; COGNITION; CURRICULUM; FITNESS; HEALTH DISPARITY; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; LEARNING; MINORITY GROUP; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RISK FACTOR; SCHOOL; SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE; SOCIOECONOMICS; STATISTICS; STUDENT; UNITED STATES; URBAN POPULATION;

ABSENTEEISM; ACHIEVEMENT; ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR; AGE FACTORS; ATTENTION; CHILD; CHILD WELFARE; COGNITION; CURRICULUM; HEALTH PROMOTION; HEALTH STATUS DISPARITIES; HUMANS; LEARNING; MINORITY GROUPS; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL FITNESS; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES; SCHOOLS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; STUDENTS; UNITED STATES; URBAN POPULATION;

EID: 80052951058     PISSN: 00224391     EISSN: 17461561     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00637.x     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Gordon-Larsen P, Adair LS, Nelson MC, Popkin BM. Five-year obesity incidence in the transition period between adolescence and adulthood: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:569-575.
2. Kimm SY, Barton BA, Obarzanek E, et al. Racial divergence in adiposity during adolescence: the NHLBI Growth and Health Study. Pediatrics. 2001;107:e34.
3. Kimm SY, Barton BA, Obarzanek E, et al. Obesity development during adolescence in a biracial cohort: the NHLBI Growth and Health Study. Pediatrics. 2002;110:e54.
4. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Flegal KM. High body mass index for age among US children and adolescents, 2003-2006. JAMA. 2008;299:2401-2405.
5. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, Tabak CJ, Flegal KM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. JAMA. 2006;295:1549-1555.
6. Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Johnson CL. Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. JAMA. 2002;288:1728-1733.
7. Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Carroll MD. Prevalence and trends in overweight in Mexican-American adults and children. Nutr Rev. 2004;62:S144-S148.
8. Freedman DS, Khan LK, Serdula MK, Ogden CL, Dietz WH. Racial and ethnic differences in secular trends for childhood BMI, weight, and height. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14:301-308.
9. Hedley AA, Ogden CL, Johnson CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, Flegal KM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents, and adults, 1999-2002. JAMA. 2004;291:2847-2850.
10. Brown WJ, Burton NW, Rowan PJ. Updating the evidence on physical activity and health in women. Am J Prev Med. 2007;33:404-411.
11. Mora S, Redberg RF, Cui Y, et al. Ability of exercise testing to predict cardiovascular and all-cause death in asymptomatic women: a 20-year follow-up of lipid research clinics prevalence study. JAMA. 2003;290:1600-1607.
12. Myers J, Prakash M, Froelicher V, Do D, Partington S, Atwood JE. Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. New Engl J Med. 2002;346:793-801.
13. Stamatakis E, Hamer M, Primatesta P. Cardiovascular medication, physical activity and mortality: cross-sectional population study with ongoing mortality follow up. Heart. 2008;95:448-453.
14. Bassuk SS, Manson JE. Epidemiological evidence for the role of physical activity in reducing risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. J Appl Physiol. 2005;99:1193-1204.
15. Oczkowski W. Complexity of the relation between physical activity and stroke: a meta-analysis. Clin J Sport Med. 2005;15:399.
16. Wendel-Vos GC, Schuit AJ, Feskens EJ, et al. Physical activity and stroke. A meta-analysis of observational data. Int J Epidemiol. 2004;33:787-798.
17. Chang SC, Ziegler RG, Dunn B, et al. Association of energy intake and energy balance with postmenopausal breast cancer in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:334-341.
18. Dallal CM, Sullivan-Halley J, Ross RK, et al. Long-term recreational physical activity and risk of invasive and in situ breast cancer: the California teachers study. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:408-415.
19. Mai PL, Sullivan-Halley J, Ursin G, et al. Physical activity and colon cancer risk among women in the California Teachers Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:517-525.
20. Sprague BL, Trentham-Dietz A, Newcomb PA, Titus-Ernstoff L, Hampton JM, Egan KM. Lifetime recreational and occupational physical activity and risk of in situ and invasive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:236-243.
21. Wolin KY, Lee IM, Colditz GA, Glynn RJ, Fuchs C, Giovannucci E. Leisure-time physical activity patterns and risk of colon cancer in women. Int J Cancer. 2007;121:2776-2781.
22. LaMonte MJ, Barlow CE, Jurca R, Kampert JB, Church TS, Blair SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness is inversely associated with the incidence of metabolic syndrome: a prospective study of men and women. Circulation. 2005;112:505-512.
23. Brown WJ, Ford JH, Burton NW, Marshall AL, Dobson AJ. Prospective study of physical activity and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women. Am J Prev Med. 2005;29:265-272.
24. Teychenne M, Ball K, Salmon J. Associations between physical activity and depressive symptoms in women. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008;5:27.
25. Wise LA, Adams-Campbell LL, Palmer JR, Rosenberg L. Leisure time physical activity in relation to depressive symptoms in the Black Women's Health Study. Ann Behav Med. 2006;32:68-76.
26. Blair SN, Kohl HW III, Paffenbarger RS Jr., Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA. 1989;262:2395-2401.
27. Landi F, Russo A, Cesari M, et al. Walking one hour or more per day prevented mortality among older persons: results from ilSIRENTE study. Prev Med. 2008;47:422-442.
28. Manini TM, Everhart JE, Patel KV, et al. Daily activity energy expenditure and mortality among older adults. JAMA. 2006;296:171-179.
29. Angevaren M, Aufdemkampe G, Verhaar HJ, Aleman A, Vanhees L. Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;6:CD005381.
30. Bixby WR, Spalding TW, Haufler AJ, et al. The unique relation of physical activity to executive function in older men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:1408-1416.
31. Hillman CH, Motl RW, Pontifex MB, et al. Physical activity and cognitive function in a cross-section of younger and older community-dwelling individuals. Health Psychol. 2006;25:678-687.
32. Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, Castillo MJ, Sjöström M. Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence: a powerful marker of health. Int J Obes (Lond). 2008;32:1-11.
33. Dencker M, Thorsson O, Karlsson MK, Lindén C, Wollmer P, Andersen LB. Daily physical activity related to aerobic fitness and body fat in an urban sample of children. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008;187:728-735.
34. Eisenmann JC, Bartee RT, Smith DT, Welk GJ, Fu Q. Combined influence of physical activity and television viewing on the risk of overweight in U.S. youth. Int J Obes. 2008;32:613-618.
35. Gutin B, Basch CE, Shea S, et al. Blood pressure, fitness and fatness in 5-6 year-old children. JAMA. 1990;264:1123-1127.
36. Katzmarzyk PT, Baur LA, Blair SN, Lambert EV, Oppert JM, Riddoch C. Expert panel report from the International Conference on Physical Activity and Obesity in Children, 24-27 June 2007, Toronto, Ontario: summary statement and recommendations. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008;33:371-388.
37. Lohman TG, Ring K, Pfeiffer K, et al. Relationships among fitness, body composition, and physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:1163-1170.
38. Ness AR, Leary SD, Mattocks C, et al. Objectively measured physical activity and fat mass in a large cohort of children. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e97.
39. Ortega FB, Tresaco B, Ruiz JR, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and sedentary activities are associated with adiposity in adolescents. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15:1589-1599.
40. Pate RR, Davis MG, Robinson TN, et al. Promoting physical activity in children and youth: a leadership role for schools. A statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Physical Activity Committee) in collaboration with the Councils on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and Cardiovascular Nursing. Circulation. 2006;114:1214-1224.
41. Treuth MS, Catellier DJ, Schmitz KH, et al. Weekend and weekday patterns of physical activity in overweight and normal-weight adolescent girls. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15:1782-1788.
42. Gidding SS, Barton BA, Dorgan JA, et al. Higher self-reported physical activity is associated with lower systolic blood pressure: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics. 2006;118:2388-2393.
43. Leary SD, Ness AR, Smith GD, et al. Physical activity and blood pressure in childhood: findings from a population based study. Hypertension. 2008;51:92-98.
44. Janz KF, Gilmore JM, Levy SM, Letuchy EM, Burns TL, Beck TJ. Physical activity and femoral neck bone strength during childhood: the Iowa Bone Development Study. Bone. 2007;41:216-222.
45. Sardinha LB, Baptista F, Ekelund U. Objectively measured physical activity and bone strength in 9-year-old boys and girls. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e728-e736.
46. Tobias JH, Steer CD, Mattocks CG, Riddoch C, Ness AR. Habitual levels of physical activity influence bone mass in 11-year-old children from the United Kingdom: findings from a large population based cohort. J Bone Miner Res. 2007;22:101-109.
47. Bonhauser M, Fernandez G, Püschel K, et al. Improving physical fitness and emotional well-being in adolescents of low socioeconomic status in Chile: results of a school based controlled trial. Health Promot Int. 2005;20:113-122.
48. Dishman RK, Hales DP, Pfeiffer KA, et al. Physical self-concept and self-esteem mediate cross-sectional relations of physical activity and sport participation with depression symptoms among adolescent girls. Health Psychol. 2006;25:396-407.
49. Larun L, Nordheim LV, Ekeland E, Hagen KB, Heian F. Exercise in prevention and treatment of anxiety and depression among children and young people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD004691.
50. Nelson MC, Gordon-Larsen P. Physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns are associated with selected adolescent health risk behaviors. Pediatrics. 2006;117:1281-1290.
51. Schmalz DL, Deane GD, Birch LL, Davison KK. A longitudinal assessment of the links between physical activity and self-esteem in early adolescent non-Hispanic females. J Adolesc Health. 2007;41:559-565.
52. Strauss RS, Rodzilsky D, Burack G, Colin M. Psychosocial correlates of physical activity in healthy children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155:897-902.
53. Duncan SC, Duncan TE, Strycker LA, Chaumeton NR. A cohort-sequential latent growth model of physical activity from ages 12 to 17. Ann Behav Med. 2007;33:80-89.
54. Eaton DK, Kahn L, Kinchen S, et al. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance-United States, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:1-131.
55. Kahn JA, Huang B, Gillman MW, et al. Patterns and determinants of physical activity in US adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 2008;42:369-377.
56. McMurray RG, Harrell JS, Creighton D, Wang Z, Bangdiwala SI. Influence of physical activity on change in weight status as children become adolescents. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2008;3:69-77.
57. Hardy LL, Bass SL, Booth ML. Changes in sedentary behaviors among adolescent girls: a 2.5-year prospective study. J Adolesc Health. 2007;40:158-165.
58. Nader PR, Bradley RH, Houts RM, McRitchie SL, O'Brien M. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years. JAMA. 2008;300:295-305.
59. Nelson MC, Neumark-Stzainer D, Hannan PJ, Sirard JR, Story M. Longitudinal and secular trends in physical activity and sedentary behavior during adolescence. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e1627-e1634.
60. Pate RR, Dowda M, O'Neill JR, Ward DS. Change in physical activity participation among adolescent girls from 8th to 12th grade. J Phys Act Health. 2007;4:3-16.
61. Pfeiffer KA, Dowda M, Dishman RK, Sirard JR, Pate RR. Physical fitness and performance. Cardiorespiratory fitness in girls-change from middle to high school. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:2234-2241.
62. Sirard JR, Pfeiffer KA, Dowda M, Pate RR. Race differences in activity, fitness, and BMI in female eighth graders categorized by sports participation status. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2008;20:198-210.
63. Baker BL, Birch LL, Trost SG, Davison KK. Advanced pubertal status at age 11 and lower physical activity in adolescent girls. J Pediatr. 2007;151:488-493.
64. Davidson KK, Werder JL, Trost SG, Baker BL, Birch LL. Why are early maturing girls less active? Links between pubertal development, psychological well-being, and physical activity among girls at ages 11 and 13. Soc Sci Med. 2007;64:2391-2404.
65. Singh GK, Yu SM, Siahpush M, Kogan MD. High levels of physical inactivity and sedentary behaviors among U.S. immigrant children and adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2008;162:756-763.
66. Barnett TA, O'Loughlin J, Gauvin L, Paradis G, Hanley J. Opportunities for student physical activity in elementary schools: a cross-sectional survey of frequency and correlates. Health Educ Behav. 2006;33:215-322.
67. Motl RW, Dishman RK, Saunders RP, Dowda M, Pate RR. Perceptions of physical and social environment variables and self-efficacy as correlates of self-reported physical activity among adolescent girls. J Pediatr Psychol. 2007;32:6-12.
68. Pate RR, Colabianchi N, Porter D, Almeida MJ, Lobelo F, Dowda M. Physical activity and neighborhood resources in high school girls. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34:413-419.
69. Tucker P, Irwin JD, Gilliland J, He M, Larsen K, Hess P. Environmental influences on physical activity levels in youth. Health & Place. 2009;15:357-363.
70. Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Page P, Popkin BM. Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity. Pediatrics. 2006;117:417-424.
71. Moore LV, Diez Roux AV, Evenson KR, McGinn AP, Brines SJ. Availability of recreational resources in minority and low socioeconomic status areas. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34:16-22.
72. Richmond TK, Hayward RA, Gahagan S, Field AE, Heisler M. Can school income and racial/ethnic composition explain the racial/ethnic disparity in adolescent physical activity participation? Pediatrics. 2006;117:2158-2166.
73. Richmond TK, Subramanian SV. School level contextual factors are associated with the weight status of adolescent males and females. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008;16:1324-1330.
74. Ding Q, Vayman S, Akhavan M, Gomez-Pinilla F. Insulin-like growth factor I interfaces with brain-derived neurotropic factor-mediated synaptic plasticity to modulate aspects of exercise-induced cognitive function. Neuroscience. 2006;140:823-833.
75. Coles K, Tomporowski PD. Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. J Sport Sci. 2008;26:333-344.
76. Deary IJ, Whalley LJ, Batty GD, Starr JM. Physical fitness and lifetime cognitive change. Neurology. 2006;67:1195-1200.
77. Sibley BA, Beilock SL. Exercise and working memory: an individual differences investigation. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007;29:783-791.
78. Tomporowski PD. Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychologica (Amsterdam). 2003;112:297-324.
79. Kramer AF, Erickson KI, Colcombe SJ. Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101:237-242.
80. Kramer AF, Erickson KI. Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function. Trends Cogn Sci. 2007;11:342-348.
81. Vaynman S, Gomez-Pinilla F. License to run: exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2005;19:283-295.
82. White LJ, Castellano V. Exercise and brain health-implications for multiple sclerosis: part I-neuronal growth factors. Sports Med. 2008;38:91-100.
83. White LJ, Castellano V. Exercise and brain health-implications for multiple sclerosis: part II-immune factors and stress hormones. Sports Med. 2008;38:176-186.
84. Mahar MT, Murphy SK, Rowe DA, Golden J, Shields AT, Raedeke TD. (2006). Effects of a classroom based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:2086-2094.
85. Etnier JL, Nowell PM, Landers DM, Sibley BA. A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance. Brain Res Rev. 2006;52:119-130.
86. Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF. Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9:58-65.
87. Vaynman S, Gomez-Pinilla F. Revenge of the "sit": how lifestyle impacts neuronal and cognitive health through molecular systems that interface energy metabolism with neuronal plasticity. J Neurosci Res. 2006;84:699-715.
88. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil. 2008;11:236-240.
89. Caterino MC, Polak ED. Effects of two types of activity on the performance of second-, third-, and fourth-grade students on a test of concentration. Percept Mot Skills. 1999;89:245-248.
90. Ahamed Y, Macdonald H, Reed K, Naylor PJ, Liu-Ambrose T, McKay H. School-based physical activity does not compromise children's academic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:371-376.
91. Coe DP, Pivarnik JM, Womack CJ, Reeves MJ, Malina RM. Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1515-1519.
92. Sallis JF, McKenzie TL, Kolody B, Lewis M, Marshall S, Rosengard P. Effects of health-related physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1999;70:127-134.
93. Carlson SA, Fulton JE, Lee SM, et al. Physical education and academic achievement in elementary school: data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:721-727.
94. Castelli DM, Hillman CH, Buck SM, Erwin HE. Physical fitness and academic achievement in third- and fifth-grade students. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007;29:239-252.
95. Hillman CH, Castelli DM, Buck SM. Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37:1967-1974.
96. Buck SM, Hillman CH, Castelli DM. The relation of aerobic fitness to stop task performance in preadolescent children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:166-172.
97. Taras H. Physical activity and student performance. J Sch Health. 2005;75:214-218.
98. Sibley BA, Etnier JL. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2003;15:243-256.
99. Trudeau F, Shepard RJ. Physical education, school physical activity, sports and academic performance. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2008;5:10.
100. Ge X, Conger RD, Elder GH Jr. Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Dev Psychol. 2001;37:404-417.
101. Kessler RC, Avenevoli S, Ries Merikangas K. Mood disorders in children and adolescents: an epidemiologic perspective. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49:1002-1014.
102. Patton GC, Hemphill SA, Beyers JM, et al. Pubertal stage and deliberate self-harm in adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:508-514.
103. Patton GC, Viner R. Pubertal transitions in health. Lancet. 2007;369:1130-1139.
104. Bond L, Butler H, Thomas L, et al. Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. J Adolesc Health. 2007;40:357.e9-e18.
105. Rice M, Kang DH, Weaver M, Howell CC. Relationship of anger, stress, and coping with school connectedness in fourth-grade children. J Sch Health. 2008;78:149-156.
106. Shochet IM, Dadds MR, Ham D, Montague R. School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: results of a community prediction study. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2006;35:170-179.
107. Geier AB, Foster GD, Womble LG, et al. The relationship between relative weight and school attendance among elementary schoolchildren. Obesity. 2007;15:2157-2163.
108. Shore SM, Sachs ML, Lidicker JR, Brett SN, Wright AR, Libonati JR. Decreased scholastic achievement in overweight middle school students. Obesity. 2008;16:1535-1538.
109. Fitch KD, Morton AR, Blanksby BA. Effects of swimming training on children with asthma. Arch Dis Child. 1976;51:190-194.
110. Matsumoto I, Araki H, Tsuda K, et al. Effects of swimming training on aerobic capacity and exercise induced bronchoconstriction in children with bronchial asthma. Thorax. 1999;54:196-201.
111. Ram FS, Robinson SM, Black PN, Picot J. Physical training for asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;4:CD001116.
112. Welsh L, Kemp JG, Roberts RG. Effects of physical conditioning on children and adolescents with asthma. Sports Med. 2005;35:127-141.
113. Bonsignore MR, La Grutta S, Cibella F. Effects of exercise training and montelukast in children with mild asthma. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:405-412.
114. Fanelli A, Cabral AL, Neder JA, Martins MA, Cavalho CR. Exercise training on disease control and quality of life in asthmatic children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:1474-1480.
115. Basaran S, Guler-Uysal F, Ergen N, Seydaoglu G, Bingol-Karakoç G, Ufuk Altintas D. Effects of physical exercise on quality of life, exercise capacity and pulmonary function in children with asthma. J Rehabil Med. 2006;38:130-135.
116. Williams B, Powell A, Hoskins G, Neville R. Exploring and explaining low participation in physical activity among children and young people with asthma: a review. BMC Fam Pract. 2008;9:40.
117. Yin Z, Moore JB. Reexamining the role of interscholastic sport participation in education. Psychol Rep. 2004;94:1447-1454.
118. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for school and community programs to promote lifelong physical activity among young people. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997;46(RR-6): 1-42.
119. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. Moving Into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education. 2nd ed. Reston, VA: Author; 2004.
120. Pate RR, Wang CY, Dowda M, Farrell SW, O'Neill JR. Cardiorespiratory fitness levels among US youth 12 to 19 years of age: findings from the 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:1005-1012.
121. Pate RR, O'Neill JR. Summary of the American Heart Association scientific statement: promoting physical activity in children and youth: a leadership role for schools. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2008;23:44-49.
122. Strong WB, Malina RM, Blimkie CJ, et al. Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. J Pediatr. 2005;146:732-737.
123. Task Force on Community Preventive Services. Guide to community preventive services. Enhanced physical education classes are recommended to increase physical activity among young people. Available at: Accessed October 17, 2008.
124. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A report on recommendation of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50: 1-16.
125. Ginsburg KR, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Communications, & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics. 2007;119:182-191.
126. Barr-Anderson DJ, Young DR, Sallis JF, et al. Structured physical activity and psychosocial correlates in middle-school girls. Prev Med. 2007;44:404-409.
127. Barr-Anderson DJ, Neumark-Sztainer D, Schmitz KH, et al. But I like PE: factors associated with enjoyment of physical education class in middle school girls. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2008;79:18-27.
128. Dishman RK, Motl RW, Saunders R, et al. Enjoyment mediates effects of a school-based physical-activity intervention. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37:478-487.
129. Gordon-Larsen P, McMurray RG, Popkin BM. Determinants of adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics. 2000;105:E83.
130. Molnar BE, Gortmaker SL, Bull FC, Buka SL. Unsafe to play? Neighborhood and lack of safety predict reduced physical activity among urban children and adolescents. Am J Health Promot. 2004;18:378-386.
131. Richmond TK, Field AE, Rich M. Can neighborhoods explain racial/ethnic differences in adolescent inactivity? Int J Pediatr Obes. 2007;2:202-210.
132. Ries AV, Gittelson J, Voorhees CC, Roche KM, Clifton KJ, Astone NA. The environment and urban adolescents use of recreational facilities for physical activity. Am J Health Promot. 2008;23:43-50.
133. Dishman RK, Saunders RP, Motl RW, Dowda M, Pate RR. Self-efficacy moderates the relation between declines in physical activity and perceived social support in high school girls. J Pediatr Psychol. 2009;34:441-451.
134. Ridgers ND, Stratton G, Fairclough SJ. Physical activity levels of children during school playtime. Sports Med. 2006;36:359-371.
135. Stratton G, Ridgers ND, Fairclough SJ, Richardson DJ. Physical activity levels of normal-weight and overweight girls and boys during primary school recess. Obesity. 2007;15:1513-1519.
136. Davidson KK, Werder JL, Lawson CT. Children's active commuting to school: current knowledge and future directions. Prev Chronic Dis. 2008;5:A100.
137. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Barriers to children walking and biking to school-United States, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:701-704.
138. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Barriers to children walking to or from school-United States, 2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:949-952.
139. Ham SA, Martin S, Kohl HW. Changes in the percentage of students who walk or bike to school-United States, 1969 and 2001. J Phys Act Health. 2008;5:205-215.
140. McDonald NC. Active transportation to school: trends among U.S. school children, 1969-2001. Am J Prev Med. 2007;32:509-516.
141. McDonald NC. Critical factors for active transportation to school among low-income and minority students. Evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34:341-344.
142. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Kidswalk-to-school. Available at: Accessed December 27, 2008.
143. National Center for Safe Routes to Schools. Saferoutes. Available at: Accessed December 27, 2008.
144. Stewart JA, Dennison DA, Kohl HW, Doyle JA. Exercise level and energy expenditure in the TAKE 10! in-class physical activity program. J Sch Health. 2004;74:397-400.
145. Honas JJ, Washburn RA, Smith BK, Greene JL, Donnelly JE. Energy expenditure of the physical activity across the curriculum intervention. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:1501-1505.
146. Pate RR, Saunders R, Dishman RK, Addy C, Dowda M, Ward DS. Long-term effects of a physical activity intervention in high school girls. Am J Prev Med. 2007;33:276-280.
147. Pate RR, Ward DS, O'Neill JR, Dowda M. Enrollment in physical education is associated with overall physical activity in adolescent girls. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2007;78:265-270.
148. Pate RR, Ward DS, Saunders RP, Felton G, Dishman RK, Dowda M. Promotion of physical activity among high-school girls: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Public Health. 2005;95:1582-1587.
149. Pfeiffer KA, Dowda M, Dishman RK, et al. Sport participation and physical activity in adolescent females across a four-year period. J Adolesc Health. 2006;39:523-529.
150. Saunders RP, Ward D, Felton GM, Dowda M, Pate RR. Examining the link between program implementation and behavior outcomes in the Lifestyle Education for Activity Program (LEAP). Eval Program Plann. 2006;29:352-364.
151. Ward DS, Saunders R, Felton GM, Williams E, Epping JN, Pate RR. Implementation of a school environment intervention to increase physical activity in high school girls. Health Educ Res. 2006;21:896-910.