Demographic response of mule deer to experimental reduction of coyotes and mountain lions in southeastern idaho

Wildlife Monographs

Volumn , Issue 178, 2011, Pages 1-33

  Hurley, Mark A ^a   Unsworth, James W ^a   Zager, Peter ^a   Hebblewhite, Mark ^b   Garton, Edward O ^c   Montgomery, Debra M ^c   Skalski, John R ^d   Maycock, Craig L ^e  

^a IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^e U S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE   (United States)

Author keywords

Alternate prey; Canis latrans; climate; coyote; mortality; mountain lion; mule deer; Odocoileus hemionus; predator control; Puma concolor; survival analysis

Indexed keywords

CANIS LATRANS; CERVIDAE; LAGOMORPHA; ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS; PUMA CONCOLOR; UNGULATA;

EID: 80051590615     PISSN: 00840173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1002/wmon.4     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Ackerman, B. B. 1988. Visibility bias of mule aerial census procedures in southeast Idaho. Dissertation, University of Idaho, Moscow, USA.
2. Ackerman, B. B., F. G. Lindzey, and T. P. Hemker. 1984. Cougar food habits in southern Utah. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:147-155. (Pubitemid 15273609)
3. Anderson, A. E. 1981. Morphological and physical characteristics. Pages 27-97 in O. C. Wallmo, editor. Mule and black-tailed deer of North America. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, USA.
4. Anderson, C. R., and F. G. Lindzey. 2005. Experimental evaluation of population trend and harvest composition in a Wyoming cougar population. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33:179-188. (Pubitemid 40985061)
5. Austin, D. D., P. J. Urness, and M. L. Wolfe. 1977. The influence of predator control on two adjacent wintering deer herds. Great Basin Naturalist 37:101-102.
6. Ballard, W. B., D. Lutz, T. W. Keegan, L. H. Carpenter, and J. C. deVos. Jr., 2001. Deer-predator relationships: a review of recent North American studies with emphasis on mule and black-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29:99-115. (Pubitemid 32368420)
7. Bartmann, R. M., G. C. White, and L. H. Carpenter. 1992. Compensatory mortality in a Colorado mule deer population. Wildlife Monographs 121.
8. Beasom, S. L. 1974. Relationships between predator removal and white-tailed deer net productivity. Journal of Wildlife Management 38:854-859.
9. Bender, L. C., L. A. Lomas, and J. Browning. 2007. Condition, survival, and cause-specific mortality of adult female mule deer in north-central New Mexico. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:1118-1124.
10. Beyer, H. L., E. H. Merrill, N. Varley, and M. S. Boyce. 2007. Willow on Yellowstone's Northern Range: evidence for a trophic cascade? Ecological Applications 17:1563-1571. (Pubitemid 351323479)
11. Bishop, C. J., J. W. Unsworth, and E. O. Garton. 2005. Mule deer survival among adjacent populations in southwest Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 69:311-321. (Pubitemid 40600553)
12. Bishop, C. J., G. C. White, D. J. Freddy, B. E. Watkins, and T. R. Stephenson. 2009. Effect of enhanced nutrition on mule deer population rate of change. Wildlife Monographs 172.
13. Bleich, V. C., and T. J. Taylor. 1998. Survivorship and cause-specific mortality in five populations of mule deer. Great Basin Naturalist 58:265-272. (Pubitemid 28338639)
14. Boertje, R. D., M. A. Keech, D. D. Young, K. A. Kellie, and C. T. Seaton. 2009. Managing for elevated yield of moose in interior Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 73:314-327.
15. Boutin, S. 1992. Predation and moose population dynamics: a critique. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:116-127.
16. Burnham K. P., and D. R. Anderson, editors. 1998. Model selection and inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
17. Burnham, K. P., and D. R. Anderson. 2002. Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretical approach. Second edition. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
18. Cantor, A. 1997. Extending SAS survival analysis techniques for medical research. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA.
19. Caughley, G. 1974. Interpretation of age ratios. Journal of Wildlife Management 38:557-562.
20. Caughley, G. 1976. Wildlife management and the dynamics of ungulate populations. Pages 183-246 in T. W. Coaker, editor. Applied biology. Volume 1. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.
21. Caughley, G. 1979. What is this thing called carrying capacity? Pages 2-8 in M. S. Boyce and L. D. Hayden-Wing, editors North American Elk: ecology, behavior and management. University of Wyoming Press, Laramie, USA.
22. Caughley, G. 1981. Comments on natural regulation of ungulates (what constitutes a real wilderness?). Wildlife Society Bulletin 9:232-234.
23. Caughley, G., and A. R. E. Sinclair. 1994. Wildlife ecology and management. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
24. Choate, D. M., M. L. Wolfe, and D. C. Stoner. 2006. Evaluation of cougar population estimators in Utah. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:782-799. (Pubitemid 44784514)
25. Chomel, B. B., M. L. Carniciu, R. W. Kasten, P. M. Castelli, T. M. Work, and D. A. Jessup. 1994. Antibody prevalence of eight ruminant infectious diseases in California mule and black-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 30:51-59.
26. Clark, F. W. 1972. Influence of jackrabbit density on coyote population change. Journal of Wildlife Management 36:343-356.
27. Cochran, W. G. 1977. Pages 30-34 in Sampling techniques. Third edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York, USA.
28. Connolly, G. E. 1978a. Predator control and coyote populations: a review of simulation models. Pages 327-345 in M. Beckoff, editor. Coyotes: biology, behavior, and management. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.
29. Connolly, G. E. 1978b. Predators and predator control. Pages 369-394 in J. L. Schmidt and D. L. Gilbert, editors. Big game of North America: ecology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, USA.
30. Connolly, G. E. 1981. Assessing populations. Pages 287-345 in O. C. Wallmo, editor. Mule and black-tailed deer of North America. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, USA.
31. Connolly, G. E., and W. M. Longhurst. 1975. The effect of control on coyote populations: a simulation model. Division of Agriculture Science Bulletin 1872, Davis, California, USA.
32. Cook, J. G., B. K. Johnson, R. C. Cook, R. A. Riggs, T. Delcurto, L. D. Bryant, and L. L. Irwin. 2004. Effects of summer-autumn nutrition and parturition date on reproduction and survival of elk. Wildlife Monographs 155.
33. Coulson, T., S. Albon, F. Guinness, J. Pemberton, and T. Clutton-Brock. 1997. Population substructure, local density, and calf winter survival in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Ecology 78:852-863.
34. Coulson, T., E. A. Catchpole, S. D. Albon, B. J. T. Morgan, J. M. Pemberton, T. H. Clutton-Brock, M. J. Crawley, and B. T. Grenfell. 2001. Age, sex, density, winter weather, and population crashes in Soay Sheep. Science 292:1528-1531. (Pubitemid 32493418)
35. Coviello, V., and M. Boggess. 2004. Cumulative incidence estimation in the presence of competing risks. Stata Journal 4:103-112.
36. Cox, D. R., and D. Oakes. 1984. Analysis of survival data. Chapman and Hall, New York, New York, USA.
37. Cunningham, S. C., C. R. Gustavson, and W. B. Ballard. 1999. Diet selection of mountain lions in southeastern Arizona. Journal of Range Management 52:202-207. (Pubitemid 29233469)
38. DeCesare, N. J., M. Hebblewhite, H. S. Robinson, and M. Musiani. 2010. Endangered, apparently: the role of apparent competition in endangered species conservation. Animal Conservation 13:353-362.
39. Denny, R. N. 1976. Regulations and mule deer harvest. Pages 85-90 in G. W. Workman and J. B. Low, editors. Mule deer decline in the West: a symposium. Utah State University and Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, USA.
40. Dumont, A., M. Crête, J. P. Ouellet, J. Huot, and J. Lamoureux. 2000. Population dynamics of northern white-tailed deer during mild winters: evidence of regulation by food competition. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78:764-776. (Pubitemid 30597450)
41. Eberhardt, L. L. 1985. Assessing the dynamics of wild populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:997-1012.
42. Eberhardt, L. L. 2002. A paradigm for population analysis of long-lived vertebrates. Ecology 83:2841-2854. (Pubitemid 36524712)
43. Festa-Bianchet, M., J. M. Gailliard, and S. D. Côté 2003. Variable age structure and apparent density dependence in survival of adult ungulates. Journal of Animal Ecology 72:640-649. (Pubitemid 36872499)
44. Gaillard, J. M., D. Allaine, D. Pontier, N. G. Yoccoz, and D. E. L. Promislow. 1994. Senescence in natural populations of mammals: a reanalysis. Evolution 48:509-516. (Pubitemid 2160687)
45. Gaillard, J. M., D. Delorme, J. M. Boutin, G. Van Laere, B. Boisaubert, and R. Pradel. 1993. Roe deer survival patterns: a comparative analysis of contrasting populations. Journal of Animal Ecology 62:778-791. (Pubitemid 24408991)
46. Gaillard, J. M., M. Festa-Bianchet, and N. G. Yoccoz. 1998. Populations dynamics of large herbivores: variable recruitment with constant adult survival. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13:58-63. (Pubitemid 28081008)
47. Gaillard, J. M., M. Festa-Bianchet, N. G. Yoccoz, A. Loison, and C. Toigo. 2000. Temporal variation in fitness components and population dynamics of large herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:367-393. (Pubitemid 32122407)
48. Gese, E. M. 1995. Foraging ecology of coyotes in Yellowstone National Park. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA.
49. Gilbert, B., and K. J. Raedeke. 2004. Recruitment dynamics of black-tailed deer in the western Cascades. Journal of Wildlife Management 68:120-128. (Pubitemid 38131726)
50. Gill, R. B., T. D. I. Beck, C. J. Bishop, D. J. Freddy, N. T. Hobbs, R. H. Kahn, M. W. Miller, T. M. Pojar, and G. C. White. 2001. Declining mule deer populations in Colorado: reasons and responses. Special Report Number 77. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver, USA.
51. Glover, T., and K. Mitchell. 2002. An introduction to biostatistics. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York, USA.
52. Guthery, F. S., and S. L. Beasom. 1977. Responses of game and nongame wildlife to predator control in south Texas. Journal of Range Management 30:404-409.
53. Hamlin, K. L., and R. J. Mackie. 1989. Mule deer in the Missouri River Breaks, Montana: a study of population dynamics in a fluctuating environment. Final Report Federal Aid in Restoration Project W-120-R. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, Helena, USA.
54. Hamlin, K. L., S. J. Riley, D. Pyrah, A. R. Dood, and R. J. Mackie. 1984. Relationships among mule deer fawn mortality, coyotes, and alternate prey species during summer. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:489-499. (Pubitemid 16272511)
55. Harrington, J. L., and M. R. Conover. 2007. Does removing coyotes for livestock protection benefit free-ranging ungulates? Journal of Wildlife Management 71:1555-1560.
56. Harrell, F. Jr. 2001. Regression modeling strategies: with applications to linear models, logistic regression, and survival analysis. Springer, New York, New York, USA.
57. Hayes, R. D., R. Farnell, R. M. P. Ward, J. Carey, M. Dehn, G. W. Kuzyk, A. M. Baer, C. L. Gardner, and M. O'donoghue. 2003. Experimental reduction of wolves in the Yukon: ungulate responses and management implications. Wildlife Monographs 152.
58. Hebblewhite, M. 2005. Predation by wolves interacts with the North Pacific Oscillation (NPO) on a western North American elk population. Journal of Animal Ecology 74:226-233. (Pubitemid 40451974)
59. Hebblewhite, M., C. A. White, C. G. Nietvelt, J. A. McKenzie, T. E. Hurd, J. M. Fryxell,S. E. Bayley, and P. C. Paquet. 2005. Human activity mediates a trophic cascade caused by wolves. Ecology 86:2135-2144. (Pubitemid 41117484)
60. Hebblewhite, M., and E. H. Merrill. 2009. Trade-offs between predation risk and forage differ between migrant strategies in a migratory ungulate. Ecology 90:3445-3454.
61. Heisey, D. M., and B. R. Patterson. 2006. A review of methods to estimate cause-specific mortality in presence of competing risks. Journal of Wildlife Management 70:1544-1555. (Pubitemid 46214490)
62. Henke, S. E., and F. C. Bryant. 1999. Effects of coyote removal on the faunal community in western Texas. Journal of Wildlife Management 63:1066-1081. (Pubitemid 29498856)
63. Hobbs, N. T. 1989. Linking energy balance to survival in mule deer: development and test of a simulation model. Wildlife Monographs 101.
64. Hobbs, N. T., and D. M. Swift. 1985. Estimates of habitat carrying-capacity incorporating explicit nutritional constraints. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:814-822. (Pubitemid 17244804)
65. Hoff, G. L., C. J. Issel, D. O. Trainer, and S. H. Richards. 1973. Arbovirus serology in North Dakota mule and white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 9:291-295.
66. Hoffman, S. W. 1979. Coyote-prey relationships in Curlew Valley during a period of low jackrabbit density. Thesis, Utah State University, Logan, USA.
67. Holmes, B. R., and J. W. Laundre. 2000. The mountain lion in southeastern Idaho: population characteristics and a test of optimal foraging theory. A final report for Idaho Fish and Game. Idaho State University, Pocatello, USA.
68. Hornocker, M. G. 1970. An analysis of mountain lion predation upon mule deer and elk in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildlife Monographs 21.
69. Hosmer, D. W., and S. Lemeshow. 1999. Applied survival analysis: regression modeling of time to event data. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
70. Hurley, M. A., and J. W. Unsworth. 1998. Southeast mule deer ecology. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Study Plan Completion Report, Project W-160-25. Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Boise, USA.
71. Idaho Department of Fish and Game. 1999. White-tailed deer, mule deer, and elk management plan. Pages 21-44 in L. Kuck and B. B. Compton, editors. Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Boise, USA.
72. Kaplan, E. L., and P. Meier. 1958. Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations. Journal of the American Statistical Association 53:457-481.
73. Karki, S. M., E. M. Gese, and M. L. Klavetter. 2007. Effects of coyote population reduction on swift fox demographics in southeastern Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:2707-2718.
74. Kauffman, M. J., N. Varley, D. W. Smith, D. R. Stahler, D. R. MacNulty, and M. S. Boyce. 2007. Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator-prey system. Ecology Letters 10:690-700. (Pubitemid 47007572)
75. Keith, L. B. 1974. Some features of the population dynamics of large mammals. International Congress of Game Biologists 2:17-58.
76. Keith, L. B. 1983. Population dynamics of wolves. Pages 66-77 in L. N. Carbyn, editor. Wolves in Canada and Alaska. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series Number 45.
77. Kie, J. G., and M. White. 1985. Population dynamics of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus vriginianus) on the Welder Wildlife Refuge, Texas. The Southwest Naturalist 30:105-118.
78. Kjellander, P., J. M. Gaillard, and A. J. M. Hewison. 2006. Density-dependent responses of fawn cohort body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations. Oecologia 146:521-530. (Pubitemid 41817784)
79. Klein, J., and M. Moeschberger. 2003. Survival analysis: techniques for censored and truncated data. Springer, New York, New York, USA.
80. Knowlton, F. F. 1976. Potential influence of coyotes on mule deer populations. Pages 111-118 in G. W. Workman and J. B. Low, editors. Mule deer decline in the West: a symposium. Utah State University and Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, USA.
81. Knowlton, F. F. 1984. Feasibility of assessing coyote abundance on small areas. Final Report. Predator ecology and behavior project, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Denver, Colorado, USA.
82. Knowlton, F. F., and E. M. Gese. 1995. Coyote population process revisited. Pages 1-6 in D. Rohms, C. Richardson, T. Blankenship, K. Conon, and S. Henke, editors. Proceedings of the symposium on coyotes in the west: a compendium of knowledge. San Angelo, Texas, USA.
83. Kunkel, K. E., T. K. Ruth, D. H. Pletscher, and M. G. Hornocker. 1999. Winter prey selection by wolves and cougars in and near Glacier National Park, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 63:901-910. (Pubitemid 29332383)
84. Laundre, J. W., L. Hernandez, and S. G. Clark. 2007. Numerical and demographic responses of pumas to changes in prey abundance: testing current predictions. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:345-355.
85. Leslie, P. H. 1948. Some further notes on the use of matrices in population mathematics. Biometrika 35:213-245.
86. Lindzey, F. G., W. D. Van Sickle, S. P. Laing, and C. S. Mecham. 1992. Cougar population response to manipulation in southern Utah. Wildlife Society Bulletin 20:224-227.
87. Lingle, S., S. M. Pellis, and W. F. Wilson. 2005. Interspecific variation in antipredator behavior leads to differential vulnerability of mule deer and white-tailed deer fawn early in life. Journal of Animal Ecology 74:1140-1149. (Pubitemid 44921923)
88. Logan, K. A., and L. L. Sweanor. 2001. Desert puma: evolutionary ecology and conservation of an enduring carnivore. Inland Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
89. Loison, A., M. Festa-Bianchet, J. M. Gaillard, J. T. Jorgenson, and J. M. Jullien. 1999. Age-specific survival in five populations of ungulates: evidence of senescence. Ecology 80:2539-2554. (Pubitemid 30001003)
90. Lomas, L. A., and L. C. Bender. 2007. Survival and cause-specific mortality of neonatal mule deer fawns, north-central New Mexico. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:884-894.
91. Lukacs, P. M., G. C. White, B. E. Watkins, R. H. Kahn, B. A. Banulis, D. J. Finley, A. A. Holland, J. A. Martens, and J. Vayhinger. 2009. Separating components of variation in survival of mule deer in Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 73:817-826.
92. Mackie, R. J., D. F. Pac, K. L. Hamlin, and G. L. Dusek. 1998. Ecology and management of mule deer and white-tailed deer in Montana. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Project W-120-R. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, Helena, USA.
93. Marshal, J. P., P. R. Krausman, and V. C. Bleich. 2005. Rainfall, temperature, and forage dynamics affect nutritional quality of desert mule deer forage. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58:360-365. (Pubitemid 41124551)
94. McLeod, S. R. 1997. Is the concept of carrying capacity useful in variable environments? Oikos 79:529-542.
95. McCullough, D. R. 1979. The George Reserve deer herd: population ecology of a K-selected species. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, USA.
96. Melis, C., B. Je?drzejewska, M. Apollonio, K. A. Bartoń, W. Je?drzejewski, J. D. C. Linnell, I. Kojola, J. Kusak, M. Adamic, S. Ciuti, I. Delehan, I. Dykyy, K. Krapinec, L. Mattioli, A. Sagaydak, N. Samchuk, K. Schmidt, M. Shkvyrya, V. E. Sidorovich, B. Zawadzka, and S. Zhyla. 2009. Predation has a greater impact in less productive environments: variation in roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, population density across Europe. Global Ecology and Biogeography 18:724-734.
97. Messier, F. 1994. Ungulate population models with predation: a case study with the North American moose. Ecology 75:478-488.
98. Mosnier, A., D. Boisjoly, R. Courtois, and J. P. Ouellet. 2008. Extensive predator space use can limit the efficacy of a control program. Journal of Wildlife Management 72:483-491. (Pubitemid 351273023)
99. Murray, D. L. 2006. On improving telemetry-based survival estimation. Journal of Wildlife Management 70:1530-1543. (Pubitemid 46214489)
100. Murray, K., and M. M. Conner. 2009. Methods to quantify variable importance: implications for the analysis of noisy ecological data. Ecology 90:348-355.
101. Nilsen, E. B., J. M. Gaillard, R. Anderson, J. Odden, D. Delorme, G. van Laere, and J. D. C. Linnell. 2009. A slow life in hell or a fast life in heaven: demographic analyses of contrasting roe deer populations. Journal of Animal Ecology 78:585-594.
102. O'Donoghue, M., S. Boutin, C. J. Krebs, and E. J. Hofer. 1997. Numerical responses of coyotes and lynx to the snowshoe hare cycle. Oikos 80:150-162. (Pubitemid 27369417)
103. O'Donoghue, M., S. Boutin, C. J. Krebs, G. Zuleta, D. L. Murray, and E. J. Hofer. 1998. Functional responses of coyotes and lynx to the snowshoe hare cycle. Ecology 79:1193-1208. (Pubitemid 28378675)
104. Ogle, T. F. 1971. Predator-prey relationships between coyotes and white-tailed deer. Northwest Science 45:213-218.
105. Orians G., P. A. Cochran, J. W. Duffield, T. K. Fuller, R. J. Gutierrez, W. M. Henemann, F. C. James, P. Kareiva, S. R. Kellert, D. Klein, B. N. McLellan, P. D. Olson, and G. Yaska, editors. 1997. Wolves, bears, and their prey in Alaska: biological and social challenges in wildlife management. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
106. Owen-Smith, N., and D. R. Mason. 2005. Comparative changes in adult vs. juvenile survival affecting population trends of African ungulates. Journal of Animal Ecology 74:762-773. (Pubitemid 41576945)
107. Parker, K. L., P. S. Barboza, and M. P. Gillingham. 2009. Nutrition integrates environmental responses of ungulates. Functional Ecology 23:57-69.
108. Parker, K. L., M. P. Gillingham, T. A. Hanley, and C. T. Robbins. 1999. Energy and protein balance of free-ranging black-tailed deer in a natural forest environment. Wildlife Monographs 143.
109. Parker, K. L., R. G. White, M. P. Gillingham, and D. F. Holleman. 1990. Comparison of energy metabolism in relation to daily activity and milk consumption by caribou and muskox neonates. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68:106-114. (Pubitemid 20427412)
110. Patterson, B. R., L. K. Benjamin, and F. Messier. 1998. Prey switching and feeding habits of eastern coyotes in relation to snowshoe hare and white-tailed deer densities. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:1885-1897.
111. Patterson, B. R., and F. Messier. 2000. Factors influencing killing rates of white-tailed deer by coyotes in eastern Canada. Journal of Wildlife Management 64:721-732. (Pubitemid 30454150)
112. Peek, J. M. 1980. Natural regulation of ungulates (what constitutes a real wilderness?). Wildlife Society Bulletin 8:217-227.
113. Peek, J. M., B. Dennis, and T. Hershey. 2002. Predicting population trends of mule deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 66:729-736. (Pubitemid 34915230)
114. Pierce, B. M., R. T. Bowyer, and V. C. Bleich. 2004. Habitat selection by mule deer: forage benefits or risk of predation? Journal of Wildlife Management 68:533-541. (Pubitemid 39033508)
115. Pintilie, M. 2006. Competing risks: a practical perspective. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA.
116. Pitt, W. C., F. F. Knowlton, and P. W. Box. 2001. A new approach to understanding canid populations using an individual-based computer model: preliminary results. Endangered Species UPDATE 18:103-106.
117. Pojar, T. M., and D. C. Bowden. 2004. Neonatal mule deer survival in west-central Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 68:550-560. (Pubitemid 39033510)
118. Pollock, K. H., S. R. Winterstein, C. M. Bunck, and P. D. Curtis. 1989. Survival analysis in telemetry studies: the staggered entry design. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:7-15. (Pubitemid 19325318)
119. Prugh, L. R. 2005. Coyote prey selection and community stability during a decline in food supply. Oikos 110:253-264. (Pubitemid 40831894)
120. Pyrah, D. 1984. Social distribution and population estimates of coyotes in north-central Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:679-690. (Pubitemid 17244776)
121. Randa, L. A., D. M. Cooper, P. L. Meserve, and J. A. Yunger. 2009. Prey switching of sympatric canids in response to variable prey abundance. Journal of Mammalogy 90:594-603.
122. Riley, S. J., and A. R. Dood. 1984. Summer movements, home range, habitat use, and behavior of mule deer fawns. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:1302-1310. (Pubitemid 16278850)
123. Robinette, W. L., C. H. Baer, R. E. Pillmore, and C. E. Knittle. 1973. Effects of nutritional change on captive mule deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 37:312-326.
124. Robinette, W. L., C. H. Hancock, and D. A. Jones. 1977. The Oak Creek mule deer herd in Utah. Utah Division of Wildlife Resource Publication 77-15, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
125. Robinette, W. L., D. A. Jones, G. Rogers, and J. S. Gashwiler. 1957. Notes on tooth development and wear for Rocky Mountain mule deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 21:134-153.
126. Samuel, M. D., and E. O. Garton. 1994. Horvitz-Thompson survey sample methods for estimating large-scale animal abundance. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 59:170-179.
127. Samuel, M. D., E. O. Garton, M. W. Schlegel, and R. G. Carlson. 1987. Visibility bias during aerial surveys of elk in north central Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 51:622-630. (Pubitemid 19318972)
128. Sasser, R. G., C. A. Ruder, K. A. Ivani, J. E. Butler, and W. C. Hamilton. 1986. Detection of pregnancy by radioimmunoassay of a novel pregnancy-specific protein in serum of cows and profile of serum concentrations during gestation. Biology of Reproduction 35:936-942.
129. Seber, G. A. F. 1982. The estimation of animal abundance. Macmillan, New York, New York, USA.
130. Sinclair, A. R. E. 1989. Population regulation of animals. Pages 197-241 in J. M. Cherret, editor. Ecological concepts. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, United Kingdom.
131. Smallwood, K. S., and E. L. Fitzhugh. 1993. A rigorous technique for identifying individual mountain lions (Felis concolor) by their tracks. Biological Conservation 65:51-59.
132. Smallwood, K. S., and E. L. Fitzhugh. 1995. A track count for estimating mountain lion (Felis concolor californica) population trend. Biological Conservation 71:251-259.
133. Smith, R. B. 1983. Mule deer reproduction and survival in the Lasal Mountains, Utah. Thesis, Utah State University Logan, USA.
134. Smith, R. H., and A. LeCount. 1979. Some factors affecting survival of desert mule deer fawns. Journal of Wildlife Management 43:657-665.
135. Smith, R. H., D. J. Neff, and N. G. Woolsey. 1986. Pronghorn response to coyote control-a benefit:cost analysis. Wildlife Society Bulletin 14:226-231.
136. Spalding, D. J., and J. Lesowski. 1971. Winter food of the cougar in south central British Colombia. Journal of Wildlife Management 35:378-381.
137. Stewart, K. M., R. T. Bowyer, B. L. Dick, B. K. Johnson, and J. G. Kie. 2005. Density-dependent effects on physical condition and reproduction in North American elk: an experimental test. Oecologia 143:85-93. (Pubitemid 40383606)
138. Stout, G. G. 1982. Effects of coyote reduction on white-tailed deer productivity on Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Wildlife Society Bulletin 10:329-332.
139. Tatman, N. M. 2009. Cause-specific mule deer fawn mortality and the use of vaginal implant transmitters in central Arizona. Thesis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA.
140. Terborgh, J., K. Feeley, M. Silman, P. Nuñez, and B. Balukjian. 2006. Vegetation dynamics of predator-free land-bridge islands. Journal of Ecology 94:253-263.
141. Theberge, J. B., and D. A. Gauthier. 1985. Modelsof wolf-ungulate relationships: when is wolf control justified? Wildlife Society Bulletin 13:449-458. (Pubitemid 17251726)
142. Todd, A. W., and L. B. Keith. 1983. Coyote demography during a snowshoe hare decline in Alberta. Journal of Wildlife Management 47:394-404.
143. Todd, S. 2002. Building consensus on divisive issues: a case study of the Yukon wolf management team. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 22:655-684.
144. Trainer, C. E., J. C. Lemos, T. P. Kistner, W. C. Lightfoot, and D. E. Toweill. 1981. Mortality of mule deer fawns in southeastern Oregon, 1968-1979. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Research Report Number 10, Portland, USA.
145. Trout, R. G. 1978. Small mammal abundance and distribution in the Missouri River Breaks, Montana. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, USA.
146. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 2004. AgriMet, Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network. Monthly precipitation and temperature for Malta, Idaho. . Accessed 16 Jan 2004.
147. Unsworth, J. W., F. A. Leban, D. J. Leptich, E. O. Garton, and P. Zager. 1994. Aerial survey: user's manual with practical tips for designing and conducting aerial big game surveys. Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Boise, USA.
148. Unsworth, J. W., D. F. Pac, G. C. White, and R. M. Bartmann. 1999. Mule deer survival in Colorado, Idaho, and Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 63:315-326. (Pubitemid 29060260)
149. Van Sickle, W. D., and F. G. Lindzey. 1991. Evaluation of a cougar population estimator based on probability sampling. Journal of Wildlife Management 55:738-743.
150. Vucetich, J. A., D. W. Smith, and D. R. Stahler. 2005. Influence of harvest, climate, and wolf predation on Yellowstone elk, 1961-2004. Oikos. 111:259-270. (Pubitemid 41686785)
151. Wade, D. A., and J. E. Bowns. 1985. Procedures for evaluating predation on livestock and wildlife. Texas Agricultural Extension Service Publication Number B-1429. Texas A&M University, College Station, USA.
152. Wang, G. M., N. T. Hobbs, R. B. Boone, A. W. Illius, I. J. Gordon, J. E. Gross, and K. L. Hamlin. 2006. Spatial and temporal variability modify density dependence in populations of large herbivores. Ecology 87:95-102. (Pubitemid 43363718)
153. Wang, G. M., N. T. Hobbs, S. Twombly, R. B. Boone, A. W. Illius, I. J. Gordon, and J. E. Gross. 2009. Density dependence in northern ungulates: interactions with predation and resources. Population Ecology 51:123-132.
154. Western Regional Climate Center. 2004. . Accessed 10 Feb 2004.
155. White, M., F. F. Knowlton, and W. C. Glazener. 1972. Effects of dam-newborn fawn behavior on capture and mortality. Journal of Wildlife Management 36:897-906.
156. Wirsing, A. J., M. R. Heithaus, A. Frid, and L. M. Dill. 2008. Seascapes of fear: evaluating sublethal predator effects experienced and generated by marine mammals. Marine Mammal Science 24:1-15. (Pubitemid 351239272)
157. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Second edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.