Observation and analysis of sonar signal generation in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Evidence for two sonar sources

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology

Volumn 407, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 81-96

  Cranford, Ted W ^a   Elsberry, Wesley R ^b   Van Bonn, William G ^c   Jeffress, Jennifer A ^d   Chaplin, Monica S ^e   Blackwood, Diane J ^b   Carder, Donald A ^d   Kamolnick, Tricia ^f   Todd, Mark A ^f   Ridgway, Sam H ^g,h  

^a SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Florida Fish and Wildlife Research Institute   (United States)

^c THE MARINE MAMMAL CENTER   (United States)

^d Naval Command   (United States)

^e DISNEY S ANIMAL KINGDOM   (United States)

^f Animal Training Consultants   (United States)

^g NATIONAL MARINE MAMMAL FOUNDATION   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Biosonar; Endoscopy; Nasal phonation; Odontocete; Phonic lips; Toothed whale

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE; DATA ACQUISITION; DOLPHIN; HYDROPHONE; LITERATURE REVIEW; MARINE ECOSYSTEM; SIGNAL; SONAR; WHALE;

CETACEA; ODONTOCETI; TURSIOPS; TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS;

EID: 79961150090     PISSN: 00220981     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2011.07.010     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Amundin M. Helium effects on the click frequency spectrum of the harbor porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1991, 90(1):53-59.
2. Amundin M. Sound production in odontocetes with emphasis on the harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena 1991, 128. Department of Zoology, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden.
3. Amundin M., Andersen S.H. Bony nares air pressure and nasal plug muscle activity during click production in the harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena, and the bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus. J. Exp. Biol. 1983, 105:275-282.
4. Amundin M., Cranford T.W. Forehead anatomy of Phocoena phocoena and Cephalorhynchus commersonii: 3-dimensional computer reconstructions with emphasis on the nasal diverticula. Sensory abilities of cetaceans: laboratory and field evidence 1990, 1-18. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. J.A. Thomas, R.A. Kastelein (Eds.).
5. Amundin M., et al. The study of the sound production apparatus in the harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena and the jacobita, Cephalorhynchus commersoni by means of serial cryo-microtome sectioning and 3-D computer graphics. Animal sonar: processes and performance 1988, 61-66. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. P.E. Nachtigall, P.W.B. Moore (Eds.).
6. Au W.W.L. The sonar of dolphins 1993, Springer-Verlag Inc, New York, 277pp.
7. Au W.W.L. Echolocation in dolphins. Hearing by whales and dolphins 2000, 364-408. Springer-Verlag, New York. W.W.L. Au, A.N. Popper, R.R. Fay (Eds.).
8. Au W.W.L. Echolocation signals of wild dolphins. Acoust. Phys. 2004, 50(4):454-462.
9. Au W.W.L., et al. Demonstration of adaptation in beluga whale echolocation signals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1985, 77:726-730.
10. Au W.W.L., et al. Echolocation transmitting beam of the Atlantic bottlenose dolphin. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1986, 80(2):688-691.
11. Au W.W.L., et al. Echolocation signals and transmission beam pattern of a false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1995, 98(1):51-59.
12. Au W.W.L., et al. The acoustic field on the forehead of echolocating Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2010, 128(3):1426-1434.
13. Backus R.H., Schevill W.E. Physeter clicks. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises 1966, 510-528. University of California Press, Los Angeles. K.S. Norris (Ed.).
14. Bullock T.H., Ridgway S.H. Evoked potentials in the central auditory system of alert porpoises to their own and artificial sounds. J. Neurobiol. 1972, 3(1):79-99.
15. Busnel R.G., Dzeidzic A. Acoustic signals of the pilot whale Globicephala melaena and of the porpoises Delphinus delphis and Phocoena phocoena, whales, dolphins and porpoises 1966, 606-646. Univ. Calif. Press.
16. Caldwell D.K., Caldwell M.C. Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps (de Blainville, 1838): dwarf sperm whale Kogia simus (Owen, 1866). The handbook of marine mammals: river dolphins and the larger toothed whales 1989, 235-260. Academic Press, Ltd, London. S.H. Ridgway, J.R. Harrison (Eds.).
17. Caldwell D.K., et al. Production of pulsed sounds by the pigmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps. Bull. Calif. Acad. Sci. 1966, 65(4):245-248.
18. Chen F.-C., Weinreich G. Nature of the lip reed. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1996, 99(2):1227-1233.
19. Coulombe H.N., et al. Respiratory water exchange in two species of porpoise. Science 1965, 149(3679):86-88.
20. Cranford T.W. The anatomy of acoustic structures in the spinner dolphin forehead as shown by X-ray computed tomography and computer graphics. Animal sonar: processes and performance 1988, 67-77. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. P.E. Nachtigall, P.W.B. Moore (Eds.).
21. Cranford T.W. Functional morphology of the odontocete forehead: implications for sound generation 1992, 276. Department of Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz.
22. Cranford T.W. Evidence for multiple sonar signal generators in odontocetes. 13th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals 1999, 40. The Society for Marine Mammalogy, Maui.
23. Cranford T.W. The sperm whale's nose: sexual selection on a grand scale?. Mar. Mammal Sci. 1999, 15(4):1133-1157.
24. Cranford T.W. In search of impulse sound sources in odontocetes. Hearing by whales and dolphins 2000, 109-156. Springer-Verlag, New York. W.W.L. Au, A.N. Popper, R.R. Fay (Eds.).
25. Cranford T.W. Biosonar sources in odontocetes: considering structure and function. J. Exp. Biol. 2011, 214:1403-1404.
26. Cranford T.W., Amundin M.E. Biosonar pulse production in odontocetes: the state of our knowledge. Echolocation in bats and dolphins 2003, 27-35. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. J.A. Thomas, C.F. Moss, M. Vater (Eds.).
27. Cranford T.W., et al. Functional morphology and homology in the odontocete nasal complex: implications for sound generation. J. Morphol. 1996, 228(3):223-285.
28. Cranford T.W., et al. Visualizing dolphin sonar signal generation using high-speed video endoscopy. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1997, 102(5, Suppl. 2):3123.
29. Cranford T.W., et al. Acoustic pathways revealed: simulated sound transmission and reception in Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). Bioinsp. Biomim. 2008, 3:1-10.
30. Cranford T.W., et al. Anatomic geometry of sound transmission and reception in Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). Anat. Rec. 2008, 291(4):353-378.
31. Cranford T.W., et al. A new acoustic portal into the odontocete ear and vibrational analysis of the tympanoperiotic complex. PLoS One 2010, 5(8):1-29. 10.1371/journal.pone.0011927.
32. Degollada E.B. Anatomía e histología funcionales del sistema de sacos nasales en los odontocetos (superfamilia delphinoidea) 1998, 140. Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona.
33. Diercks K.J., et al. Recording and analysis of dolphin echolocation signals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1971, 49(6):1729-1732.
34. Dormer K.J. The mechanism of sound production and measurement of sound processing in delphinid cetaceans 1974, 159. Department of Zoology, University of California, Los Angeles.
35. Dormer K.J. Mechanism of sound production and air recycling in delphinids: cineradiographic evidence. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1979, 65:229.
36. Dubrovskiy N., Giro L. Modeling of the click production mechanism in the dolphin. Echolocation in bats and dolphins 2004, 59-64. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. J. Thomas, C. Moss, M. Vater (Eds.).
37. Dubrovsky N.A., et al. Modeling of the dolphin's clicking sound source: the influence of the critical parameters. Acoust. Phys. 2004, 50(4):463-468.
38. Elsberry W.R. Interrelationships between intranarial pressure and biosonar clicks in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) 2003, 188. Wildlife & Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, Galveston.
39. Evans W.E. Echolocation by marine delphinids and one species of fresh-water dolphin. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1973, 54(1):191-199.
40. Evans W.E., Maderson P.F.A. Mechanisms of sound production in delphinid cetaceans: a review and some anatomical considerations. Am. Zool. 1973, 13:1205-1213.
41. Evans W.E., Prescott J.H. Observations of the sound production capabilities of the bottlenose porpoise: a study of whistles and clicks. Zoologica 1962, 47(11):121-128.
42. Evans W.E., et al. The directional characteristics of delphinid sounds. Marine bio-acoustics 1964, 353-372. Pergamon Press, New York. W.N. Tavolga (Ed.).
43. Fletcher N.H. Acoustic systems in biology 1992, Oxford University Press, New York, 333pp.
44. Fletcher N.H. Autonomous vibration of simple pressure-controlled valves in gas flows. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1993, 93(4):2172-2180.
45. Fletcher N.H., Rossing T.D. The physics of musical instruments 1998, Springer-Verlag, New York, 756pp. Second ed.
46. Fletcher N.H., Tarnopolsky A. Blowing pressure, power, and spectrum in trumpet playing. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1999, 105(2):874-881.
47. Frey R., et al. Arctic roars-laryngeal anatomy and vocalization of the muskox (Ovibos moschatus Zimmermann, 1780, Bovidae). J. Zool. Lond. 2006, 268(4):433-448.
48. Goller F., Larsen O.N. In situ biomechanics of the syrinx and sound generation in pigeons. J. Exp. Biol. 1997, 200:2165-2176.
49. Goodson D.A., et al. The harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)-modeling the sonar transmission mechanism. Echolocation in bats and dolphins 2003, 64-71. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. J.A. Thomas, C.F. Moss, M. Vater (Eds.).
50. Goold J.C., Clarke M.R. Sound velocity in the head of the dwarf sperm whale, Kogia sima, with anatomical and functional discussion. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 2000, 80:535-542.
51. Green R.F., et al. Functional and descriptive anatomy of the bottlenosed dolphin nasolaryngeal system with special reference to the musculature associated with sound production. Animal sonar systems 1980, 199-238. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. R.G. Busnel, J.F. Fish (Eds.).
52. Harper C.J., et al. Morphology of the melon and its tendinous connections to the facial muscles in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). J. Morphol. 2008, 269(7):820-839.
53. Herzing D.L. Vocalizations and associated underwater behavior of free-ranging Atlantic spotted dolphins, Stenella frontalis and bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus. Aquat. Mammals 1996, 22(2):61-79.
54. Heyning J.E. Comparative facial anatomy of beaked whales (Ziphiidae) and a systematic revision among the families of extant Odontoceti. Contr. Sci. Los Angeles County Mus. 1989, 405:1-64.
55. Houser D.S., et al. Structural and functional imaging of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) cranial anatomy. J. Exp. Biol. 2004, 207:3657-3665.
56. Huggenberger S., Rauschmann M.A., Oelschläger H.H.A. Functional morphology of the hyolaryngeal complex of the Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena): implications for its role in sound production and respiration. Anat. Rec. 2008, 291:1262-1270.
57. Huggenberger S., et al. Functional morphology of the nasal complex in the harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena L.). Anat. Rec. 2009, 292:902-920.
58. Kalko E.K.V., Schnitzler H.U. Plasticity in echolocation signals. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1993, 33:415-428.
59. Kamminga C. Echolocation signal types of odontocetes. Animal sonar: processes and performance 1988, 9-22. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. P.E. Nachtigall, P.W.B. Moore (Eds.).
60. Kernan J.D., Schulte H.W. Memoranda upon the anatomy of the respiratory tract, foregut, and thoracic viscera of a foetal Kogia breviceps. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1918, 38(3):231-267.
61. Klima M., et al. The morphogenesis of the highly specialized nasal skull in the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), part I. Gegenbaurs Morphol. Jahrb. 1986, 132(2):245-284.
62. Klima M., et al. The morphogenesis of the highly specialized nasal skull in the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), part II. Gegenbaurs Morphol. Jahrb. 1986, 132(3):349-374.
63. Krysl P., et al. Simulating the effect of high-intensity sound on cetaceans: modeling approach and a case study for Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2006, 120(4):2328-2339.
64. Krysl P., et al. Lagrangian finite element treatment of transient vibration/acoustics of biosolids immersed in fluids. Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 2008, 74(5):754-775.
65. Kyhn L.A., et al. Echolocation in sympatric Peale's dolphins (Lagenorhynchus australis) and Commerson's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus commersonii) producing narrow-band high-frequency clicks. J. Exp. Biol. 2010, 213:1940-1949.
66. Lammers M.O., Castellote M. The beluga whale produces two pulses to form its sonar signal. Biol. Lett. 2009, 5:297-301. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0782.
67. Lawrence B., Schevill W.E. The functional anatomy of the delphinid nose. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard) 1956, 114(4):103-151.
68. Lawrence B., Schevill W.E. Gular musculature in delphinids. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard) 1965, 133(1):1-65.
69. Lilly J.C. Man and dolphin 1961, Doubleday & Co., Inc, Garden City, New York, 312pp.
70. Lilly J.C. Vocal behavior of the bottlenose dolphin. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 1962, 106(6):520-529.
71. Lilly J.C. Sonic-ultrasonic emissions of the bottlenose dolphin. Whales, dolphins and porpoises 1966, 503-509. University of California Press, Los Angeles. K.S. Norris (Ed.).
72. Lilly J.C. Communication between man and dolphin: the possibility of talking with other species 1978, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York.
73. Lilly J.C., Miller A.M. Sounds emitted by the bottlenose dolphin. Science 1961, 133:1689-1693.
74. Mackay R.S. Dolphin air sac motion measurements during vocalization by two noninvasive ultrasonic methods. Animal sonar systems 1980, 933-936. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. R.G. Busnel, J.F. Fish (Eds.).
75. Mackay R.S., Liaw H.M. Dolphin vocalization mechanisms. Science 1981, 212(4495):676-678.
76. Madsen P.T. Sperm whale sound production 2002, 198. Zoophysiology, University of Aarhus, Denmark.
77. Madsen P.T., et al. Porpoise clicks from a sperm whale nose-convergent evolution of 130kHz pulses in toothed whale sonars?. Bioacoustics 2005, 15:195-206.
78. Madsen P.T., et al. Single source sound production and dynamic beam formation in echolocating harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). J. Exp. Biol. 2010, 213:3105-3110.
79. Markov V.I., Ostrovskaya V.M. Organization of communication system in Tursiops truncatus, Montagu. Sensory abilities of cetaceans: laboratory and field evidence 1990, 599-622. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. J.A. Thomas, R.A. Kastelein (Eds.).
80. Marten K.L., et al. Pygmy sperm whale sounds (Kogia breviceps). Eighth Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals 1989, The Society For Marine Mammalogy, Carmel, California.
81. Martin D.W. Lip vibrations in a cornet mouthpiece. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1942, 13:305-308.
82. McKenna M.F. Comparative morphology of the odontocete melon: functional and evolutionary interpretations 2005, 197. Biology Department, San Diego State University, San Diego.
83. McKenna, M.F., et al., in press. Morphological diversity of the odontocete melon and its implications for acoustic function. Mar. Mam. Sci. 27. doi:. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2011.00526.x.
84. Mead J.G. Anatomy of the external nasal passages and facial complex in the Delphinidae (Mammalia: Cetacea). Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 1975, 207:1-72.
85. Mead J.G., Fordyce R.E. The therian skull: a lexicon with emphasis on the odontocetes. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 2009, 627:216.
86. Møhl B. Sound transmission in the nose of the sperm whale Physeter catodon. A post mortem study. J. Comp. Physiol. A 2001, 187(5):335-340.
87. Møhl B., Andersen S. Echolocation: high-frequency component in the click of the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena, L.). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1973, 54(5):1368-1372.
88. Møhl B., et al. Sperm whale clicks: directionality and source level revisited. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2000, 107(1):638-648.
89. Møhl B., et al. Sound transmission in the spermaceti complex of a recently expired sperm whale calf. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. ARLO 2003, 4(1):19-24.
90. Moore P.W.B., Pawloski D.A. Investigations on the control of echolocation pulses in the dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Sensory abilities of cetaceans: laboratory and field evidence 1990, 305-316. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. J.A. Thomas, R.A. Kastelein (Eds.).
91. Moore P.W., et al. Beamwidth control and angular target detection in an echolocating bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2008, 124(5):3324-3332.
92. Morris R.J. The lipid structure of the spermaceti organ of the sperm whale (Physeter catodon). Deep-Sea Res. 1973, 20:911-916.
93. Morris R.J. Further studies into the lipid structure of the spermaceti organ of the sperm whale (Physeter catodon). Deep-Sea Res. 1975, 22:483-489.
94. Murray S.O., et al. Characterizing the graded structure of false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) vocalizations. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1998, 104(3 (Pt. 1)):1679-1688.
95. Newton M.J., et al. Mechanical response measurements of real and artificial brass players lips. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2008, 123(1):EL14-EL20.
96. Nishiwaki M., et al. Change of form in the sperm whale accompanied with growth. Sci. Repts. Whales Res. Inst. 1963, 17:1-17.
97. Norris K.S. Some problems of echolocation in cetaceans. Marine bio-acoustics 1964, 317-336. Pergamon Press, New York. W.N. Tavolga (Ed.).
98. Norris K.S. The evolution of acoustic mechanisms in odontocete cetaceans. Evolution and environment 1968, 297-324. Yale University Press, New Haven. E.T. Drake (Ed.).
99. Norris K.S. The echolocation of marine mammals. The biology of marine mammals 1969, 391-423. Academic Press, New York. H.T. Andersen (Ed.).
100. Norris K.S. Cetacean biosonar: part 1-anatomical and behavioral studies. Biochemical and biophysical perspectives in marine biology 1975, 215-234. Academic Press, New York. D.C. Malins, J.R. Sargent (Eds.).
101. Norris K.S., Harvey G.W. A theory for the function of the spermaceti organ of the sperm whale (Physeter catodon L.). Animal orientation and navigation 1972, 397-417. NASA Scientific and Technical Office, Washington, D.C. S.R. Galler, K. Schmidt-Koenig, G.J. Jacobs, R.E. Belleville (Eds.).
102. Norris K.S., Harvey G.W. Sound transmission in the porpoise head. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1974, 56(2):659-664.
103. Norris K.S., et al. The mechanism of sound production and air recycling in porpoises: a preliminary report. Proceedings of the eighth conference on the biological sonar of diving mammals 1971, 113-129. Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California.
104. Norris K.S., et al. Sound production in the freshwater porpoises Sotalia cf. fluviatilis (Gervais and Deville) and Inia geoffrensis (Blainville), in the Rio Negro, Brazil. Investigations on Cetacea 1972, 251-260. G. Pilleri (Ed.).
105. Nowicki S., Capranica R.R. Bilateral syringeal interaction in vocal production of an oscine bird sound. Science 1986, 231:1297-1299.
106. Nowicki S., et al. The communicative significance of tonality in birdsong: responses to songs produced in helium. Bioacoustics 1989, 2:35-46.
107. Popper A.N. Sound emission and detection by delphinids. Cetacean behavior: mechanisms and functions 1980, 1-52. John Wiley and Sons, New York. L.M. Herman (Ed.).
108. Prahl S. Untersuchungen zum Bau der epicranialen Atemwege beim Schweinswal (Phocoena phocoena Linnaeus, 1758) 2007, 147. Department of Zoology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg.
109. Prahl S., et al. Histological and ultrastructural aspects of the nasal complex in the harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. J. Morphol. 2009, 270:1320-1337.
110. Purves P.E. Anatomical and experimental observations on the cetacean sonar system. Animal sonar systems: biology and bionics 1966, 197-270. Frascati, Italy. R.G. Busnel (Ed.).
111. Purves P.E., Pilleri G.E. Echolocation in whales and dolphins 1983, Academic Press, London, 261pp.
112. Raven H.C., Gregory W.K. The spermaceti organ and nasal passages of the sperm whale (Physeter catodon) and other odontocetes. Am. Mus. Novit. 1933, 677:1-18.
113. Reidenberg J.S., Laitman J.T. Position of the larynx in Odontoceti (toothed whales). Anat. Rec. 1987, 218:98-106.
114. Reidenberg J.S., Laitman J.T. Anatomy of the hyoid apparatus in Odontoceti (toothed whales): specializations of their skeleton and musculature compared with those of terrestrial mammals. Anat. Rec. 1994, 240:598-624.
115. Reidenberg J.S., Laitman J.T. Sisters of the sinuses: cetacean air sacs. Anat. Rec. 2008, 291:1389-1396.
116. Ridgway S.H. Neural time and movement time in choice of whistle or pulse burst responses to different auditory stimuli by dolphins. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2011, 129:1073-1080.
117. Ridgway S.H., Carder D.A. Nasal pressure and sound production in an echolocating white whale, Delphinapterus leucas. Animal sonar systems: processes and performance 1988, 53-60. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. P.E. Nachtigall, P.W.B. Moore (Eds.).
118. Ridgway S.H., Carder D.A. Assessing hearing and sound production in cetaceans not available for behavioral audiograms: experiences with sperm, pygmy sperm, and gray whales. Aquat. Mammals 2001, 27(3):267-276.
119. Ridgway S.H., et al. Electromyographic and pressure events in the nasolaryngeal system of dolphins during sound production. Animal sonar systems 1980, 239-250. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. R.G. Busnel, J.F. Fish (Eds.).
120. Ridgway S.H., et al. Hearing and whistling in the deep sea: depth influences whistle spectra but does not attenuate hearing by white whales (Delphinapterus leucas) (Odontoceti, Cetacea). J. Exp. Biol. 2001, 204:3829-3841.
121. Roberts L.H. Cavity resonances in the production of orientation cries. Period. Biol. 1973, 75:27-32.
122. Schenkkan E.J. The occurrence and position of the "connecting sac" in the nasal tract complex of small odontocetes (Mammalia, Cetacea). Beaufortia 1971, 19(246):37-43.
123. Schenkkan E.J. On the comparative anatomy and function of the nasal tract in odontocetes (Mammalia, Cetacea). Bijdr. Dierkd. 1973, 43(2):127-159.
124. Schenkkan E.J., Purves P.E. The comparative anatomy of the nasal tract and the function of the spermaceti organ in the Physeteridae (Mammalia, Odontoceti). Bijdr. Dierkd. 1973, 43(1):93-112.
125. Sigurdson J.E. Analyzing the dynamics of dolphin biosonar behavior during search and detection tasks, underwater bio-sonar and bioacoustics symposium 1997, 123-132. Institute of Acoustics, Loughborough.
126. Soldevilla M.S., et al. Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) head tissues: physical properties and CT imaging. J. Exp. Biol. 2005, 208:2319-2332.
127. Starkhammar J., et al. Frequency-dependent variation in the 2-dimensional beam pattern of an echolocating dolphin. Biol. Lett. 2011, 7.
128. Stevenson S.D.F. Experimental Investigations of Lip Motion in Brass Instrument Playing 2009, Physics. University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, pp. 211.
129. Suthers R.A. Mechanisms of sound production by echolocating bats. Am. Zool. 1973, 13:1215-1226.
130. Suthers R.A. The production of echolocation signals by bats and birds. Animal sonar: processes and performance 1988, 23-46. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. P.E. Nachtigall, P.W.B. Moore (Eds.).
131. Suthers R.A. Contributions to birdsong from the left and right sides of the intact syrinx. Nature 1990, 347(6292):473-477.
132. Suthers R., Zollinger S. Producing song: the vocal apparatus. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1016:109-129.
133. Titze I.R. On the mechanics of vocal-fold vibration. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1976, 60(6):1366-1380.
134. Titze I.R. Regulating glottal airflow in phonation: application of the maximum power transfer theorem to a low dimensional phonation model. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2002, 111(1):367-376.
135. Tyack P.L., Clark C.W. Communication and acoustic behavior of dolphins and whales. Hearing by whales and dolphins 2000, 156-224. Springer-Verlag, New York. W.W.L. Au, A.N. Popper, R.R. Fay (Eds.).
136. Watkins W.A. The harmonic interval: fact or artifact in spectral analysis of pulse trains. Marine bio-acoustics 1967, 15-43. Pergamon Press, Oxford. W.N. Tavolga (Ed.).
137. Weir C.R., et al. The burst-pulse nature of 'squeal' sounds emitted by sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 2007, 87(1):39-46.
138. Wiersma H. The short time-duration narrow-bandwidth character of odontocete echolocation signals. Animal sonar: processes and performance 1988, 129-145. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. P.E. Nachtigall, P.W.B. Moore (Eds.).