The role of text analytics and information retrieval in the accounting domain

Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 1-24

  Fisher, Ingrid E ^a   Garnsey, Margaret R ^b   Goel, Sunita ^b   Tam, Kinsun ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b SIENA COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79961054099     PISSN: 15541908     EISSN: 15587940     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2308/jeta.2010.7.1.1     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. Abrahamson, E., and E. Amir. 1996. The information content of the president's letter to shareholders. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting 23 (8): 1157-1182.
2. Abrahamson, E., and C. Park. 1994. Concealment of negative organizational outcomes: An agency theory perspective. Academy of Management Journal 37 (5): 1302-1334.
3. Aerts, W. 1994. On the use of accounting logic as an explanatory category in narrative accounting disclosures. Accounting, Organizations and Society 19 (4/5): 337-353.
4. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). 2002. Uniform CPA Examination: Examination Content Specifications. Available at: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/9549/Uniform-CPAExamination-Examination-Content-Specifications.
5. Anderson, J. D. and J. Perez-Carballo. 2001. The nature of indexing: How humans and machines analyze messages and texts for retrieval: Part II: Machine indexing and the allocation of human versus machine effort. Information Processing and Management: An International Journal 37 (2): 255-277.
6. Antweiler, W., and M. Frank. 2004. Is all that talk just noise? The information content of Internet stock message boards. The Journal of Finance 59 (3): 1259-1294.
7. Antweiler, W., and M. Frank. 2006. Do U.S. stock markets typically overreact to corporate news stories? Working paper, University of British Columbia.
8. Art & Architecture Thesaurus® Online. 2010. About the AAT. Available at: http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/aat/about.html.
9. Back, B., J. Toivonen, H. Vanharanta, and A. Visa. 2001. Comparing numerical data and text information from annual reports using self-organizing maps. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems 2: 249-269.
10. Baginski, S., J. Hassell, and M. Kimbrough. 2004. Why do managers explain their earnings forecasts? Journal of Accounting Research 42 (1): 1-29.
11. Baker, H. E. III, and D. Kare. 1992. Relationship between annual report readability and corporate financial performance. Management Research News. 15: 1-4.
12. Barnett, A., and K. Leoffler. 1979. Readability of accounting and auditing messages. Journal of Business Communication 16: 49-59.
13. Bates, M. J. 1986. Subject access in online catalogs: A design model. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 37: 357-376.
14. Belkaoui, A. 1980. The interprofessional linguistic communication of accounting concepts: An experiment in sociolinguistics. Journal of Accounting Research 18 (2): 362-374.
15. Bettman, J., and A. Weitz. 1983. Attributions in the board room: Causal reasoning in corporate annual reports. Administrative Science Quarterly 28 (June): 165-183.
16. Beynon, M. J., M. A. Clatworthy, and M. J. Jones. 2005. The prediction of profitability using accounting narratives: A variable-precision rough set approach. Intelligent Systems in Accounting and Finance Management 12: 227-242.
17. Bhojraj, S., W. Blacconiere, and J. D'Souza. 2004. Voluntary disclosure in a multi-audience setting: An empirical investigation. The Accounting Review 79 (4): 921-947.
18. Boguraev, B. and J. Pustejovsky, eds. 1996. Corpus Processing for Lexical Acquisition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
19. Boo, E., and R. Simnett. 2002. The information content of management's prospective comments in financially distressed companies: A note. Abacus 38 (2): 280-295.
20. Borthick, A. F., P. L. Bowen, D. R. Jones, and M. H. K. Tse. 2001. The effects of information request ambiguity and construct incongruence on query development. Decision Support Systems 32: 3-25.
21. Boukus, E., and J. Rosenberg. 2006. The information content of FOMC minutes. Working paper, Yale University.
22. Bovee, M., A. Kogan, K. Nelson, R. Srivastava, and M. Vasarhelyi. 2005. Financial reporting and auditing agent with net knowledge (FRAANK) and eXtensible business reporting language (XBRL). Journal of Information Systems 19 (1): 19-41.
23. Bowman, E. H. 1984. Content analysis of annual reports for corporate strategy and risk. Interfaces 14: 61-71.
24. Brennan, N. M., E. Guillamon-Saorin, and A. Pierce. 2009. Impression management: Developing and illustrating a scheme of analysis for narrative disclosures-A methodological note. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 22 (5): 789-832.
25. Bricker, R., G. Previts, T. Robinson, and S. Young. 1995. Financial analyst assessment of company earnings quality. Journal of Accounting, Auditing & Finance 10 (3): 541-555.
26. Bryan, S. H. 1997. Incremental information content of required disclosures contained in management discussion and analysis. The Accounting Review 72 (2): 285-301.
27. Burke, J. F. 1997. Report on standards overload. The CPA Journal 66 (3): 11.
28. Cecchini, M. 2005. Quantifying the risk of financial events using kernel methods and information retrieval. Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida.
29. Clapham, S. E., and C. R. Schwenk. 1991. Self-serving attributions, managerial cognition, and company performance. Strategic Management Journal 12: 219-229.
30. Clarkson, P. M., J. L. Kao, and G. D. Richardson. 1994. The voluntary inclusion of forecasts in the MD&A section of annual reports. Contemporary Accounting Research (Fall): 423-450.
31. Clarkson, P. M., J. L. Kao, and G. D. Richardson. 1999. Evidence that management discussion and analysis (MD&A) is a part of a firm's overall disclosure package. Contemporary Accounting Research 16 (1): 11-34.
32. Clatworthy, M., and M. J. Jones. 2001. The effect of thematic structure on the variability of annual report readability. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 14 (3): 311-326.
33. Clatworthy, M., and M. J. Jones. 2003. Financial reporting of good news and bad news: Evidence from accounting narratives. Accounting and Business Research 33 (3): 171-185.
34. Clatworthy, M., and M. J. Jones. 2006. Differential patterns of textual characteristics and company performance in the chairman's statement. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 19 (4): 493-511.
35. Cole, C. 1990. MD&A trends in Standard & Poor's top 100 companies. Journal of Corporate Accounting & Finance 2 (2): 127-136.
36. Cong, Y., A. Kogan, and M. Vasarhelyi. 2007. Extraction of structure and content from the EDGAR database: A template-based approach. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 4 (1): 69-86.
37. Courtis, J. K. 1986. An investigation into annual report readability and corporate risk return relationships. Accounting and Business Research (Autumn): 285-294.
38. Courtis, J. K. 1995a. Readability of the annual report: Western versus Asian evidence. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 8 (2): 4-17.
39. Courtis, J. K. 1995b. Readability of financial statements. The Hong Kong Accountant 6 (4): 66-74.
40. Courtis, J. K. 1998. Annual report readability variability: Tests of the obfuscation hypothesis. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 11 (4): 459-471.
41. Das, S., and M. Chen. 2001. Yahoo! for Amazon: Sentiment extraction from small talk on the web. Working paper, Santa Clara University.
42. D'Aveni, R. A., and I. C. MacMillan. 1990. Crisis and the content of managerial communications: A study of the focus of attention of top managers in surviving and failing firms. Administrative Science Quarterly 35: 634-657.
43. Davis, A., J. Piger, and L. Sedor. 2008. Beyond the numbers: Managers' use of optimistic and pessimistic tone in earnings press releases. Working paper, University of Oregon.
44. Demers, E., and C. Vega. 2008. Soft information in earnings announcements: News or noise? Working paper, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
45. Deumes, R. 2008. Corporate risk reporting: A content analysis of narrative risk disclosures in prospectuses. Journal of Business Communication. 45 (2): 120-157.
46. Ding, C., and P. Chen. 2006. Mining executive compensation data from SEC filings. In Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Data Engineering Workshops, 1-7.
47. Dolphin, R., and R. A. Wagley. 1977. Reading the annual report. Financial Executive 45: 20-22.
48. Engelberg, J. 2008. Costly information processing: Evidence from earnings announcements. Working paper, Northwestern University.
49. Farrell, J., and M. Cobbin. 2000. A content analysis of codes of ethics from fifty-seven national accounting organizations. Business Ethics: A European Review 9 (3): 180-190.
50. Feldman, R., S. Govindaraj, J. Livnat, and B. Segal. 2008. The incremental information content of tone change in management discussion and analysis. Working paper, INSEAD.
51. Ferguson, D. 1997. Parsing financial statements efficiently and accurately using C and Prolog. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference and Exhibition on the Practical Applications of Prolog, 157-167.
52. Fidel, R. 1991. Searchers' selection of search keys: II. Controlled vocabulary or free-text searching. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 42 (7): 501-514.
53. Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). 2005. The FASB Addresses Standards Overload through New Projects. Available at: http://www.fasb.org/project/standards_overload.shtml.
54. Fidel, R. 2008. FASB Accounting Standards Codification™ Notice to Constituents (v1.05). Available at: http://asc.fasb.org/imageRoot/10/5724610.pdf.
55. Fidel, R. 2009. FASB Accounting Standards Codification™ Notice to Constituents (v1.05). Available at: http://asc.fasb.org/imageRoot/10/5724610.pdf.
56. Fisher, I. E. 2004. On the structure of financial accounting standards to support digital representation, storage and retrieval. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 1 (1): 23-40.
57. Fisher, I. E. 2007. A prototype system for the temporal reconstruction of financial accounting standards. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems 8 (3): 139-164.
58. Fisher, I. E. and R. A. McEwen. 2009. On a logical structure for the authoritative accounting literature: A discussion of the FASB's codification project. Issues in Innovation 3 (1): 32-56.
59. Fisher, I. E, and M. R. Garnsey. 2006. The semantics of change as revealed through an examination of financial accounting standards amendments. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 3 (1): 41-59.
60. Fisher, I. E, and M. R. Garnsey. 2010. Improving information retrieval from accounting documents: A prototype digital thesaurus for employee benefits. Paper presented at the 2010 AAA Midyear Meeting of the Information Systems and the Strategic and Emerging Technologies Sections (January), Clearwater, FL.
61. Francis, J., K. Schipper, and L. Vincent. 2002. Expanded disclosures and the increased usefulness of earnings announcements. The Accounting Review 77 (3): 515-546.
62. Frazier, K. B., R. W. Ingram, and B. M. Tennyson. 1984. A methodology for the analysis of narrative accounting disclosures. Journal of Accounting Research 22 (1): 318-331.
63. Furnas, G. W., T. K. Landauer, L. M. Gomez, and S. T. Dumais. 1987. The vocabulary problem in humansystem communication. Communications of the ACM 30 (11): 964-971.
64. Gangolly, J. 1995. Some thoughts on the engineering of financial accounting standards. In Artificial Intelligence in Accounting and Auditing III, edited by M. A. Vasarhelyi, pp. 177-190. New York, NY: Markus Weiner Publishing.
65. Gangolly, J, and K. Tam. 2002. On lexical acquisition for the financial reporting domain: Preliminary results of the analysis of year 2000 EDGAR filings. In Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Research Workshop on: Artificial Intelligence and Emerging Technologies in Accounting, Auditing and Tax. San Antonio, TX: AAA.
66. Gangolly, J, and Y.-F. Wu. 2000. On the automatic classification of accounting concepts: Preliminary results of the statistical analysis of term-document frequencies. The New Review of Applied Expert Systems and Emerging Technologies. 6: 81-88.
67. Garnsey, M. R. 2006. Automatic classification of financial accounting concepts. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 3 (1): 21-39.
68. Garnsey, M. R. 2008. A preliminary examination of differences in language between U.S. GAAP and international GAAP. Collected Papers of the 17th Annual Research Workshop on Artificial Intelligence and Emerging Technologies in Accounting Auditing and Tax, Anaheim, CA.
69. Garnsey, M. R. 2009. A comparison of language in the Codification and the FASB and its predecessors pronouncements, paper presented at the AAA Information Systems Section Midyear Meeting, Charleston, SC.
70. Garnsey, M. R, and I. E. Fisher. 2008. Appearance of new terms in accounting language: A preliminary examination of accounting pronouncements and financial statements. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 5 (1): 17-36.
71. Garnsey, M. R. and A. W. Hotaling. 2007. Improving identification of search terms in the FARS database. Review of Business Information Systems. 11 (1): 45-55.
72. Garnsey, M. R, J. O'Neill, and L. Stokes. 2009. FARS database searching: Providing potential search terms to students. Accounting Educators Journal.
73. Gerdes, J. 2003. EDGAR-analyzer: Automating the analysis of corporate data contained in the SEC's EDGAR database. Decision Support Systems 35 (1): 7-29.
74. Gibson, E. J., C. H. Bishop, W. Schiff, and J. Smith. 1964. Comparison of meaningfulness and pronunciability as grouping principles in the perception and retention of verbal material. Journal of Experimental Psychology 67 (2): 173-182.
75. Goel, S. 2008. Qualitative information in annual reports and the detection of corporate fraud: A natural language processing perspective. Doctoral dissertation, University at Albany-SUNY.
76. Goel, S. and J. Gangolly. 2009. Can linguistic predictors detect fraudulent financial filings? Paper presented at the Eighteenth Annual Research Workshop on Strategic and Emerging Technologies Section of the AAA (August). New York, NY.
77. Goldberg, L. 1965. An Inquiry into the Nature of Accounting. Sarasota, FL: AAA.
78. Gomez, L. M., C. C. Lochbaum, and T. K. Landauer. 1990. All the right words: Finding what you want as a function of richness of indexing vocabulary. Journal of the American Society for Information Science American Society for Information Science 41 (8): 547-559.
79. Govindarajan, V. 1980. The objectives of financial statements: An empirical study of the use of cash-flow and earnings by security analysts. Accounting, Organizations and Society 5 (4): 383-392.
80. Grant, C. H., and S. J. Conlon. 2006. EDGAR extraction system: An automated approach to analyze employee stock option disclosures. Journal of Information Systems 20 (2): 119-142.
81. Hanley, W., and G. Hoberg. 2009. The information content of IPO prospectuses. Review of Financial Studies.
82. Hanley, W., and G. Hoberg. 2008. Strategic disclosure and the pricing of initial public offerings. Working paper, University of Maryland.
83. Haried, A. A. 1972. The Semantic Dimension of Financial Statements. Journal of Accounting Research 10 (2): 376-391.
84. Healy, P. 1977. Can you understand the footnotes to financial statements? Accountants Journal (July): 219-222.
85. Henry, E. 2006. Market reaction to verbal components of earnings press releases: Event study using a predictive algorithm. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 3 (1): 1-19.
86. Henry, E. 2008. Are investors influenced by how earnings press releases are written? Journal of Business Communication. 45 (4): 363-407.
87. Hoberg, G., and G. Phillips. 2009. Product market synergies and competition in mergers and acquisitions. Working paper, University of Maryland.
88. Holley, C. L., and J. Early 1980. Are financial statements easy to read? The Woman CPA (April): 9-13.
89. Hooks, K. L., and J. E. Moon. 1993. A classification scheme to examine management discussion and analysis compliance. Accounting Horizons 7 (2): 41-59.
90. Hoskin, R., J. Hughes, and W. Ricks. 1986. Evidence on the incremental information content of additional firm disclosures made concurrently with earnings. Journal of Accounting Research 24 (Suppl): 1-32.
91. Hussainey, K., T. Schleicher, and M. Walker. 2003. Undertaking large-scale disclosure studies when AIMRFAF ratings are not available: The case of prices leading earnings. Accounting and Business Research 33 (4): 275-294.
92. Ingram, R. W., and K. B. Frazier. 1980. Environmental performance and corporate disclosure. Journal of Accounting Research 18 (2): 614-622.
93. Ingram, R. W., and K. B. Frazier. 1983. Narrative disclosure in annual reports. Journal of Business Research 11 (1): 49-60.
94. International Organization for Standardization. 1986. Documentation: Guidelines for the Establishment and Development of Monolingual Thesauri. 2nd edition. ISO-2788. North Sydney, N.S.W.: Standards Association of Australia.
95. Jacob, E. K. 1994. Classification and crossdisciplinary communication: Breaching the boundaries imposed by classificatory structure. In Advances in Knowledge Organization, Vol. 4: Knowledge Organization and Quality Management, edited by H. Albrechtsen, and S. Oernager, 101-108. Frankfurt/Main, Germany: Indeks Verlag.
96. Jarvenpaa, S., and B. Ives. 1990. Information technology and corporate strategy: A view from the top. Information Systems Research 1 (4): 351-376.
97. Jones, M. J. 1988. A longitudinal study of the readability of the chairman's narratives in the corporate reports of a U.K. company. Accounting and Business Research 18 (Autumn): 297-305.
98. Jones, M. J. and P. A. Shoemaker. 1994. Accounting narratives: A review of empirical studies of content and readability. Journal of Accounting Literature 14: 142-184.
99. Kelly-Newton, L. 1980. A sociological investigation of the U.S.A. mandate for replacement cost disclosures. Accounting, Organizations and Society 5 (3): 311-321.
100. Kloptchenko, A., T. Eklund, J. Karlsson, B. Back, J. Vanharanta, and A. Visa. 2004. Combining data and text mining techniques for analyzing financial reports. Intelligent Systems in Accounting and Finance Management 12 (1): 29-41.
101. Kothari, S., X. Li, and J. Short. 2009. The effect of disclosures by management, analysts, and financial press on cost of capital, return volatility, and analyst forecasts: A study using content analysis. The Accounting Review 84 (5): 1639-1670.
102. Krippendorff, K. 2004. Content Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
103. Leinnemann, C., F. Schlottmann, D. Seese, and T. Stuempert. 2001. Automatic extraction and analysis of financial data from the EDGAR database. South African Journal of Information Management 3 (2). Available at: http://www.sajim.co.za/index.php/SAJIM/article/view/127/124.
104. Li, F. 2006. Do stock market investors understand the risk sentiment of corporate annual reports? Working paper, University of Michigan.
105. Krippendorff, K. 2008. Annual report readability, current earnings, and earnings persistence. Journal of Accounting and Economics 45 (2/3): 221-247.
106. Krippendorff, K. 2010. The determinants and information content of the forward-looking statements in corporate filings-A Naïve Bayesian machine learning approach. Journal of Accounting Research _forthcoming_.
107. Loughran, T., and B. McDonald. 2009a. Plain English, readability, and 10-K filings. Working paper, University of Notre Dame.
108. Loughran, T., and B. McDonald. 2009b. When is a liability not a liability? Working paper, University of Notre Dame.
109. Luhn, H. 1957. A statistical approach to mechanized encoding and searching of literary information. IBM Journal of Research and Development 1 (4): 309-317.
110. Magnusson, C., A. Arppe, T. Eklund, B. Back, H. Vanharanta, and A. Visa. 2005. The language of quarterly reports as an indicator of change in the company's financial status. Information & Management 42 (4): 561-574.
111. Manning, C., and H. Schutze. 1999. Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
112. McConnell, D., J. A. Haslem, and V. R. Gibson. 1986. The president's letter to stockholders: A new look. Financial Analysts Journal (September-October): 66-70.
113. Merkl-Davies, D. M., and N. M. Brennan. 2007. Discretionary disclosure strategies in corporate narratives: Incremental information or impression management? Journal of Accounting Literature 26: 116-194.
114. Miller, G. S. 2002. Earnings performance and discretionary disclosure. Journal of Accounting Research 40 (1): 173-203.
115. Mohan, Saumya. 2006. Disclosure quality and its effect on litigation risk (September 1). Available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract_956499.
116. Mosteller, F., and D. Wallace. 1964. Inference and Disputed Authorship: The Federalist. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
117. Muddamalle, M. R. 1998. Natural language versus controlled vocabulary in information retrieval: A case study in soil mechanics. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 49 (10): 881-887.
118. Mui, C., and W. E. McCarthy. 1987. FSA: Applying AI techniques to the familiarization phase of financial decision making. IEEE Expert 2 (3): 33-41.
119. Nelson, T. O. 1978. Detecting small amounts of information in memory: Savings for nonrecognized items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4: 453-468.
120. Nelson, K., and C. Pritchard. 2007. Litigation risk and voluntary disclosure: The use of meaningful cautionary language. Working paper, Rice University.
121. Nelson, K. M., A. Kogan, R. P. Srivastava, M. A. Vasarhelyi, and H. Lu. 2000. Virtual auditing agents: The EDGAR agent challenge. Decision Support Systems 28 (3): 241-253.
122. O'Leary, D. E., and T. Munakata. 1988. Developing consolidated financial statements using a prototype expert system. In Applied Expert Systems, edited by Turban, E., and P. R. Watkins, 143-157. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers.
123. O'Leary, D., and T. Eis. 1991. A knowledge-based system for cash management: With implications for structuring DSS and with extensions for system learning and knowledge acquisition. In Advances in Working Capital Management, Volume 2, edited by Kim, Y. H., 197-209. Stamford. CT: JAI Press.
124. O'Leary, D, and N. Kandelin. 1992. ACCOUNTANT: A domain-dependent accounting language processing system. In Expert Systems in Finance, edited by O'Leary, D. E., and P. R. Watkins, 253-267. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers.
125. Pashalian, S., and W. J. E. Crissy. 1952. Corporate annual reports are difficult, dull reading, human interest value low. Journal of Accountancy (August): 215-219.
126. Pava, M. L., and M. J. Epstein. 1993. How good is MD&A as an investment tool? Journal of Accountancy 175 (3): 51-53.
127. Pedersen, T., S. Patwardhan, and J. Michelizzi. 2005. WordNet::Similarity-Measuring the relatedness of concepts. American Association for Artificial Intelligence. Available at: http://www.d.umn.edu/~tpederse/Pubs/AAAI04PedersenT.pdf.
128. Previts, G., R. Bricker, T. Robinson, and S. Young. 1994. A content analysis of sell-side analyst company reports. Accounting Horizons 8 (2): 55-70.
129. Previts, G., and R. Brown. 1993. The development of government accounting: A content analysis of the Journal of Accountancy, 1905-1989. The Accounting Historians Journal 20 (2): 119-138.
130. Price Waterhouse & Co. 1974. Thesaurus of Accounting and Auditing Terminology. New York, NY: Price Waterhouse & Co.
131. Rezaee, Z., K. O. Olibe, and G. Minmier. 2003. Improving corporate governance: The role of audit committee disclosures. Managerial Auditing Journal 18 (6/7): 530-537.
132. Riahi-Belkaoui, A. 1995. The Linguistic Shape of Accounting. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
133. Rogers, R., and T. Fogarty. 1997. Analysis or purification? An institutional assessment of U.S. financial analyst recommendations. Working paper, Portland State University.
134. Sadique, S., F. In, and M. Veeraraghavan. 2008. The impact of spin and tone on stock returns and volatility: Evidence from firm-issued earnings announcements and the related press coverage. Working paper, Monash University.
135. Salancik, G., and J. Meindl. 1984. Corporate attributions as strategic illusion of management control. Administrative Science Quarterly 29 (2): 238-254.
136. Schneider, J. W. 2005. Verification of bibliometric methods' applicability for thesaurus construction. ACM SIGIR Forum 39: 1.
137. Schroeder, N. and C. Gibson. 1990. Readability of management's discussion and analysis. Accounting Horizons 4 (4): 78-87.
138. Shon, J. 2003. The relation between earnings surprises and discretionary disclosure behavior in periods with short-term price declines. Working paper, University of Chicago.
139. Singhvi, S. S. 1968. Corporate disclosure through annual reports in the United States of America and India. The Journal of Finance 23 (3): 551-552.
140. Smith, J. E., and N. P. Smith. 1971. Readability: A measure of performance of the communication function of financial reporting. The Accounting Review 46 (July): 552-556.
141. Smith, M., and R. J. Taffler. 1992a. Readability and understandability: Different measures of the textual complexity of accounting narrative. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 5 (4): 84-98.
142. Smith, M., and R. J. Taffler. 1992b. The chairman's statement and corporate financial performance. Accounting and Finance 32 (2): 75-90.
143. Smith, M., and R. J. Taffler. 2000. The chairman's statement: A content analysis of discretionary narrative disclosures. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 13 (5): 624-646.
144. Soper, F. J., and R. Dolphin. 1964. Readability and corporate annual reports. The Accounting Review (39): 358-362.
145. Staw, B. M., P. I. McKechnie, and S. M. Puffer. 1983. The justification of organizational performance. Administrative Science Quarterly 28: 582-600.
146. Steele, A. 1982. The accuracy of chairman's non-quantified forecasts: An exploratory study. Accounting and Business Research 12 (2): 215-230.
147. Steier, D. 1995. Comparable datasets in performance benchmarking. In Working Notes of the 1995 AAAI Spring Symposium on Information Gathering from Heterogeneous, Distributed Environments, edited by Knoblock, C., and A. Levy.
148. Steier, D, S. B. Huffman, and D. I. Kalish. 1997. Beyond full-text search: AI-based technology to support the knowledge cycle. In Proceedings of the AAAI Spring Symposium on AI in Knowledge Management, 161-167.
149. Still, M. D. 1972. The readability of chairman's statements. Accounting and Business Research (Winter): 36-39.
150. Swales, G. S., Jr. 1988. Another look at the president's letter to stockholders. Financial Analysts Journal (March-April): 71-73.
151. Tanaka, S. 1982. The Structure of Accounting Language. Tokyo, Japan: Chuo University Press.
152. Tennyson, B. M., R. W. Ingram, and M. T. Dugan. 1990. Assessing the information content of narrative disclosures in explaining bankruptcy. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting 17 (3): 390-410.
153. Tetlock, C. 2007. Giving content to investor sentiment: The role of media in the stock market. The Journal of Finance 62 (3): 1139-1168.
154. Tetlock, C, M. Saar-Tsechansky, and S. Macskassy. 2008. More than words: Quantifying language to measure firms' fundamentals. The Journal of Finance 63: 1437-1467.
155. Wardhaugh, R. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
156. Yen, A., E. Hirst, and P. Hopkins. 2007. A content analysis of the comprehensive income exposure draft comment letters. Research in Accounting Regulation 19: 53-79.
157. Zipf, G. 1929. Relative frequency as a determinant of phonetic change. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 40: 1-95.
158. Zipf, G. 1949. Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.