Prevention of Cardioembolic Stroke

Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 488-502

  Freeman, William David ^a   Aguilar, Maria I ^b  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

Anti coagulation; Atrial fibrillation; Cardiac; Cardioembolic stroke; Myocardial infarction; Stroke

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALTEPLASE; AMIODARONE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; APIXABAN; ARH 067637; AZD 0837; BLOOD CLOTTING INHIBITOR; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLOPIDOGREL; DABIGATRAN; EDOXABAN; KETOCONAZOLE; PLACEBO; PRADAXA TM; QUINIDINE; RIVAROXABAN; TECARFARIN; THROMBIN INHIBITOR; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VERAPAMIL; WARFARIN; XIMELAGATRAN;

ANTICOAGULATION; AORTA VALVE REGURGITATION; AORTA VALVE STENOSIS; BLEEDING; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOEMBOLIC STROKE; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DEFIBRILLATION; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; EMBOLISM; ENDOCARDITIS; GASTRIC ULCER BLEEDING; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART EJECTION FRACTION; HEART INFARCTION; HEART VENTRICLE THROMBOSIS; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO; LABORATORY TEST; LIVER DYSFUNCTION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MITRAL VALVE DISEASE; MITRAL VALVE PROLAPSE; MITRAL VALVE REGURGITATION; MITRAL VALVE STENOSIS; NEUROIMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATENT FORAMEN OVALE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTHETIC VALVE THROMBOSIS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SOFT TISSUE BLEEDING; STROKE; SYMPTOM; TRANSESOPHAGEAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; TRANSTHORACIC ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; VALVULAR HEART DISEASE; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

ANTICOAGULANTS; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; STROKE;

EID: 79960849978     PISSN: 19337213     EISSN: 18787479     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s13311-011-0048-y     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Asinger RW, Dyken ML, Fisher M. Cardiogenic brain embolism. The second report of the Cerebral Embolism Task Force. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 727-743.
2. Bogousslavsky J, Cachin C, Regli F, et al. Cardiac sources of embolism and cerebral infarction - clinical consequences and vascular concomitants: the Lausanne Stroke Registry. Neurology 1991; 41: 855-859.
3. Sila CA. Cardioembolic stroke. In: Noseworthy JH, ed. Neurological therapeutics: principles and practice. New York: Martin Dunitz; 2003: 450-457.
4. Ferro JM. Cardioembolic stroke: an update. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 177-188.
5. Ramirez-Lassepas M, Cipolle RJ, Bjork RJ, et al. Can embolic stroke be diagnosed on the basis of neurologic clinical criteria? Arch Neurol 1987; 44: 87-89.
6. Caplan LR. Intracranial branch atheromatous disease: a neglected, understudied, and underused concept. Neurology 1989; 39: 1246-1250.
7. Helgason CM. Cardioembolic stroke: topography and pathogenesis. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 1992; 4: 28-58.
8. Minematsu K, Yamaguchi T, Omae T. "Spectacular shrinking deficit" - rapid recovery from a major hemispheric syndrome by migration of an embolus. Neurology 1992; 42: 157-162.
9. Adams HP Jr., del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Circulation 2007; 115: e478-e534.
10. Alhadramy O, Jeerakathil TJ, Majumdar SR, et al. Prevalence and predictors of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation on Holter monitor in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack. Stroke 2010; 41: 2596-2600.
11. Stahrenberg R, Weber-Kruger M, Seegers J, et al. Enhanced detection of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation by early and prolonged continuous holter monitoring in patients with cerebral ischemia presenting in sinus rhythm. Stroke 2010; 41: 2884-2888.
12. Morris JG, Singh S, Fisher M. Testing for inherited thrombophilias in arterial stroke: can it cause more harm than good? Stroke 2010; 41: 2985-2990.
13. Harloff A, Handke M, Reinhard M, Geibel A, Hetzel A. Therapeutic strategies after examination by transesophageal echocardiography in 503 patients with ischemic stroke. Stroke 2006; 37: 859-864.
14. Douglas PS, Khandheria B, Stainback RF, et al. ACCF/ASE/ACEP/ASNC/SCAI/SCCT/SCMR 2007 appropriateness criteria for transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Quality Strategic Directions Committee Appropriateness Criteria Working Group, American Society of Echocardiography, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, and the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance endorsed by the American College of Chest Physicians and the Society of Critical Care Medicine. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 187-204.
15. Walpot J, Pasteuning WH, Hoevenaar M, et al. Transesophageal echocardiography in patients with cryptogenic stroke: does it alter their management? A 3-year retrospective study in a single non-referral centre. Acta Clin Belg 2006; 61: 243-248.
16. de Abreu TT, Mateus S, Carreteiro C, Correia J. Therapeutic implications of transesophageal echocardiography after transthoracic echocardiography on acute stroke patients. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2008; 4: 167-172.
17. Tong DC, Bolger A, Albers GW. Incidence of transcranial Doppler-detected cerebral microemboli in patients referred for echocardiography. Stroke 1994; 25: 2138-2141.
18. Caplan LR, Hier DB, D'Cruz I. Cerebral embolism in the Michael Reese Stroke Registry. Stroke 1983; 14: 530-536.
19. Arboix A, Oliveres M, Massons J, Pujades R, Garcia-Eroles L. Early differentiation of cardioembolic from atherothrombotic cerebral infarction: a multivariate analysis. Eur J Neurol 1999; 6: 677-683.
20. Caplan L. Posterior circulation ischemia: then, now, and tomorrow. The Thomas Willis Lecture-2000. Stroke 2000; 31: 2011-2023.
21. Bogousslavsky J, Regli F, Maeder P, Meuli R, Nader J. The etiology of posterior circulation infarcts: a prospective study using magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography. Neurology 1993; 43: 1528-1533.
22. Caplan LR, Wityk RJ, Glass TA, et al. New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation registry. Ann Neurol 2004; 56: 389-398.
23. Glass TA, Hennessey PM, Pazdera L, et al. Outcome at 30 days in the New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Arch Neurol 2002; 59: 369-376.
24. Schonewille WJ, Wijman CA, Michel P, Algra A, Kappelle LJ. The basilar artery international cooperation study (BASICS). Int J Stroke 2007; 2: 220-223.
25. Pessin MS, Lathi ES, Cohen MB, et al. Clinical features and mechanism of occipital infarction. Ann Neurol 1987; 21: 290-299.
26. Yamamoto Y, Georgiadis AL, Chang HM, Caplan LR. Posterior cerebral artery territory infarcts in the New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Arch Neurol 1999; 56: 824-832.
27. Adams HP Jr., Bendixen BH, Kappelle LJ, et al. Classification of subtype of acute ischemic stroke. Definitions for use in a multicenter clinical trial. TOAST. Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment. Stroke 1993; 24: 35-41.
28. Elijovich L, Josephson SA, Fung GL, Smith WS. Intermittent atrial fibrillation may account for a large proportion of otherwise cryptogenic stroke: a study of 30-day cardiac event monitors. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2009; 18: 185-189.
29. Tayal AH, Tian M, Kelly KM, et al. Atrial fibrillation detected by mobile cardiac outpatient telemetry in cryptogenic TIA or stroke. Neurology 2008; 71: 1696-1701.
30. Gaillard N, Deltour S, Vilotijevic B, et al. Detection of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation with transtelephonic EKG in TIA or stroke patients. Neurology 2010; 74: 1666-1670.
31. Montaner J, Perea-Gainza M, Delgado P, et al. Etiologic diagnosis of ischemic stroke subtypes with plasma biomarkers. Stroke 2008; 39: 2280-2287.
32. Shibazaki K, Kimura K, Iguchi Y, Okada Y, Inoue T. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide can be a biological marker to distinguish cardioembolic stroke from other stroke types in acute ischemic stroke. Intern Med 2009; 48: 259-264.
33. Miyasaka Y, Barnes ME, Gersh BJ, et al. Secular trends in incidence of atrial fibrillation in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1980 to 2000, and implications on the projections for future prevalence. Circulation 2006; 114: 119-125.
34. Fuster V, Ryden LE, Cannom DS, et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation - executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation). [Erratum appears in J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 562]. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 854-906.
35. Feinberg WM, Blackshear JL, Laupacis A, Kronmal R, Hart RG. Prevalence, age distribution, and gender of patients with atrial fibrillation. Analysis and implications. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155: 469-473.
36. Connolly S, Pogue J, Hart R, et al. Clopidogrel plus aspirin versus oral anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation in the Atrial fibrillation Clopidogrel Trial with Irbesartan for prevention of Vascular Events (ACTIVE W): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367: 1903-1912.
37. Hohnloser SH, Pajitnev D, Pogue J, et al. Incidence of stroke in paroxysmal versus sustained atrial fibrillation in patients taking oral anticoagulation or combined antiplatelet therapy: an ACTIVE W Substudy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 2156-2161.
38. Go AS, Hylek EM, Phillips KA, et al. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: national implications for rhythm management and stroke prevention: the AnTicoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation (ATRIA) Study. JAMA 2001; 285: 2370-2375.
39. Wolf PA, Abbott RD, Kannel WB. Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: the Framingham Study. Stroke 1991; 22: 983-988.
40. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1505-1511.
41. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study. Final results. Circulation 1991; 84: 527-539.
42. The SPAF III Writing Committee for the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. Patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation at low risk of stroke during treatment with aspirin: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III Study. JAMA 1998; 279: 1273-1277.
43. Petersen P, Boysen G, Godtfredsen J, Andersen ED, Andersen B. Placebo-controlled, randomised trial of warfarin and aspirin for prevention of thromboembolic complications in chronic atrial fibrillation. The Copenhagen AFASAK study. Lancet 1989; 1: 175-179.
44. Connolly SJ, Laupacis A, Gent M, et al. Canadian Atrial Fibrillation Anticoagulation (CAFA) Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991; 18: 349-355.
45. Pearce LA, Hart RG, Halperin JL. Assessment of three schemes for stratifying stroke risk in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Am J Med 2000; 109: 45-51.
46. Gage BF, Waterman AD, Shannon W, et al. Validation of clinical classification schemes for predicting stroke: results from the National Registry of Atrial Fibrillation. JAMA 2001; 285: 2864-2870.
47. Atrial Fibrillation Investigators: Atrial Fibrillation, Aspirin, Anticoagulation Study; Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Study; Canadian Atrial Fibrillation Anticoagulation Study; Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study; Veterans Affairs Stroke Prevention in Nonrheumatic Atrial Fibrillation Study. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. [Erratum appears in Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 2254]. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 1449-1457.
48. Ezekowitz MD, Levine JA. Preventing stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation. JAMA 1999; 281: 1830-1835.
49. Laupacis A, Albers G, Dalen J, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Chest 1998; 114: 579S-589S.
50. Hart RG, Pearce LA, Aguilar MI. Meta-analysis: antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients who have nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Ann Intern Med 2007; 146: 857-867.
51. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Lancet 1993; 342: 1255-1262.
52. Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA. Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131: 492-501.
53. Aguilar M, Hart R. Antiplatelet therapy for preventing stroke in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation and no previous history of stroke or transient ischemic attacks. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005: CD001925.
54. Gullov AL, Koefoed BG, Petersen P, et al. Fixed minidose warfarin and aspirin alone and in combination vs adjusted-dose warfarin for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation: Second Copenhagen Atrial Fibrillation, Aspirin, and Anticoagulation Study. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 1513-1521.
55. Hellemons BS, Langenberg M, Lodder J, et al. Primary prevention of arterial thromboembolism in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation in primary care: randomised controlled trial comparing two intensities of coumarin with aspirin. BMJ 1999; 319: 958-964.
56. Vemmos KN, Tsivgoulis G, Spengos K, et al. Primary prevention of arterial thromboembolism in the oldest old with atrial fibrillation - a randomized pilot trial comparing adjusted-dose and fixed low-dose coumadin with aspirin. Eur J Intern Med 2006; 17: 48-52.
57. Hu DY, Zhang HP, Sun YH, Jiang LQ. [The randomized study of efficiency and safety of antithrombotic therapy in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: warfarin compared with aspirin]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 2006; 34: 295-298.
58. Rash A, Downes T, Portner R, et al. A randomised controlled trial of warfarin versus aspirin for stroke prevention in octogenarians with atrial fibrillation (WASPO). Age Ageing 2007; 36: 151-156.
59. Perez-Gomez F, Alegria E, Berjon J, et al. Comparative effects of antiplatelet, anticoagulant, or combined therapy in patients with valvular and nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a randomized multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44: 1557-1566.
60. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. Adjusted-dose warfarin versus low-intensity, fixed-dose warfarin plus aspirin for high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III randomised clinical trial. Lancet 1996; 348: 633-638.
61. Albers GW, Amarenco P, Easton JD, Sacco RL, Teal P. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004; 126: 483S-512S.
62. Connolly SJ, Pogue J, Hart RG, et al. Effect of clopidogrel added to aspirin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 2066-2078.
63. Mant J, Hobbs FD, Fletcher K, et al. Warfarin versus aspirin for stroke prevention in an elderly community population with atrial fibrillation (the Birmingham Atrial Fibrillation Treatment of the Aged Study, BAFTA): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007; 370: 493-503.
64. Singer DE, Chang Y, Fang MC, et al. The net clinical benefit of warfarin anticoagulation in atrial fibrillation. Ann Intern Med 2009; 151: 297-305.
65. Akins PT, Feldman HA, Zoble RG, et al. Secondary stroke prevention with ximelagatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation: pooled analysis of SPORTIF III and V clinical trials. Stroke 2007; 38: 874-880.
66. Albers GW, Diener HC, Frison L, et al. Ximelagatran vs warfarin for stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: a randomized trial. JAMA 2005; 293: 690-698.
67. Olsson SB. Stroke prevention with the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran compared with warfarin in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (SPORTIF III): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 362: 1691-1698.
68. Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1139-1151.
69. Dabigatran (Pradaxa) [Package Insert]: Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 2010.
70. FDA approves Pradaxa to prevent stroke in people with atrial fibrillation. In: FDA News Release [online], October 10, 2010. Available at: http://www. fda. gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm230241. htm. Accessed November 10, 2010.
71. Freeman WD, Aguilar MI, Weitz J. Risk of intracerebral hemorrhage in patients treated with warfarin. In: UpToDate database. Waltham, MA: UpToDate, Inc.; January 2010; Available at: http://www. uptodate. com/contents/risk-of-intracerebral-hemorrhage-in-patients-treated-with-w arfarin?source=search_result& selectedTitle=1%7E150. Accessed November 14, 2010.
72. Connolly SJ, Eikelboom J, Joyner C, et al. Apixaban in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 806-817.
73. Ellis DJ, Usman MH, Milner PG, Canafax DM, Ezekowitz MD. The first evaluation of a novel vitamin K antagonist, tecarfarin (ATI-5923), in patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2009; 120: 1029-1035.
74. Crandall MA, Bradley DJ, Packer DL, Asirvatham SJ. Contemporary management of atrial fibrillation: update on anticoagulation and invasive management strategies. Mayo Clin Proc 2009; 84: 643-662.
75. Cruz-Gonzalez I, Yan BP, Lam YY. Left atrial appendage exclusion: state-of-the-art. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2010; 75: 806-813.
76. Left atrial occlusion" search. ClinicalTrials. gov [online]. Available at: http://clinicaltrials. gov/ct2/results?term=left+atrial+occlusion. Accessed November 14, 2010.
77. Freeman WD, Aguilar MI, Weitz J. Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation and other major cardiac sources of embolism. Neurol Clin 2008; 26: 1129-1160.
78. Working Party on Anticoagulant Therapy in Coronary Thrombosis. Assessment of short-anticoagulant administration after cardiac infarction. Report of the Working Party on Anticoagulant Therapy in Coronary Thrombosis to the Medical Research Council. Br Med J 1969; 1: 335-342.
79. Anticoagulants in acute myocardial infarction. Results of a cooperative clinical trial. JAMA 1973; 225: 724-729.
80. Effect of long-term oral anticoagulant treatment on mortality and cardiovascular morbidity after myocardial infarction. Anticoagulants in the Secondary Prevention of Events in Coronary Thrombosis (ASPECT) Research Group. Lancet 1994; 343: 499-503.
81. Cairns JA, Theroux P, Lewis HD Jr., et al. Antithrombotic agents in coronary artery disease. Chest 1998; 114: 611S-633S.
82. Drapkin A, Merskey C. Anticoagulant therapy after acute myocardial infarction. Relation of therapeutic benefit to patient's age, sex, and severity of infarction. JAMA 1972; 222: 541-548.
83. Young JB. Chronic heart failure management. In: Topol EJ, ed. Comprehensive Cardiovascular Medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1998.
84. Di Tullio MR, Homma S. Mechanisms of cardioembolic stroke. Curr Cardiol Rep 2002; 4: 141-148.
85. Schwedt TJ, Demaerschalk BM, Dodick DW. Patent foramen ovale and migraine: a quantitative systematic review. Cephalalgia 2008; 28: 531-540.
86. Maisel WH, Laskey WK. Patent foramen ovale closure devices: moving beyond equipoise. JAMA 2005; 294: 366-369.
87. Homma S, Sacco RL, Di Tullio MR, Sciacca RR, Mohr JP. Effect of medical treatment in stroke patients with patent foramen ovale: patent foramen ovale in Cryptogenic Stroke Study. Circulation 2002; 105: 2625-2631.
88. Messe SR, Silverman IE, Kizer JR, et al. Practice parameter: recurrent stroke with patent foramen ovale and atrial septal aneurysm: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2004; 62: 1042-1050.
89. CLOSURE 1 Trial results. Medscape, LLC [online]; 2010. Available at: http://www. theheart. org/article/1088789. do. Accessed November 10, 2010.
90. Furlan AJ, Reisman M, Massaro J, et al. Study design of the CLOSURE I Trial: a prospective, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of the STARFlex septal closure system versus best medical therapy in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack due to presumed paradoxical embolism through a patent foramen ovale. Stroke 2010; 41: 2872-2883.
91. RESPECT PFO Clinical Trial. ClinicalTrials. gov [online]; 2010. Available at: http://clinicaltrials. gov/ct2/show/NCT00465270. Accessed November 14, 2010.
92. Patent Foramen Ovale Closure or Anticoagulants Versus Antiplatelet Therapy to Prevent Stroke Recurrence (CLOSE) Trial. ClinicalTrials. gov [online]; 2010. Available from: http://clinicaltrials. gov/ct2/show/NCT00562289. Accessed November 14, 2010.
93. Itoh T, Matsumoto M, Handa N, et al. Paradoxical embolism as a cause of ischemic stroke of uncertain etiology. A transcranial Doppler sonographic study. Stroke 1994; 25: 771-775.
94. Myers PO, Bounameaux H, Panos A, Lerch R, Kalangos A. Impending paradoxical embolism: systematic review of prognostic factors and treatment. Chest 2010; 137: 164-170.
95. Hendel RC, Patel MR, Kramer CM, et al. ACCF/ACR/SCCT/SCMR/ASNC/NASCI/SCAI/SIR 2006 appropriateness criteria for cardiac computed tomography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Quality Strategic Directions Committee Appropriateness Criteria Working Group, American College of Radiology, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, North American Society for Cardiac Imaging, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Interventional Radiology. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 1475-1497.
96. Rustemli A, Bhatti TK, Wolff SD. Evaluating cardiac sources of embolic stroke with MRI. Echocardiography 2007; 24: 301-308.
97. Medi C, Hankey GJ, Freedman SB. Stroke risk and antithrombotic strategies in atrial fibrillation. Stroke 2010; 41: 2705-2713.
98. Mahaffey KW, Fox K, Investigators obotRA, eds. Rivaroxaban comparable to warfarin in preventing stroke and other complications of irregular heartbeat. American Heart Association. Available at: http://www. newsroom. heart. org/index. php?s=43& item=1191. November 15, 2010.
99. Orencia AJ, Hammill SC, Whisnant JP. Sinus node dysfunction and ischemic stroke. Heart Dis Stroke 1994; 3: 91-94.
100. Mosterd A, Hoes AW, de Bruyne MC, et al. Prevalence of heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction in the general population; The Rotterdam Study. Eur Heart J 1999; 20: 447-455.
101. Witt BJ, Brown RD Jr., Jacobsen SJ, et al. Ischemic stroke after heart failure: a community-based study. Am Heart J 2006; 152: 102-109.
102. Loh E, Sutton MS, Wun CC, et al. Ventricular dysfunction and the risk of stroke after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 251-257.
103. Anderson GM, Hull E. The effect of dicumarol upon the mortality and incidence of thromboembolic complications in congestive heart failure. Am Heart J 1950; 39: 697-702.
104. Griffith GC, Stragnell R, Levinson DC, Moore FJ, Ware AG. A study of the beneficial effects of anticoagulant therapy in congestive heart failure. Ann Intern Med 1952; 37: 867-887.
105. Harvey WP, Finch CA. Dicumarol prophylaxis of thromboembolic disease in congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1950; 242: 208-211.
106. Georgiadis D, Sievert M, Cencetti S, et al. Cerebrovascular reactivity is impaired in patients with cardiac failure. Eur Heart J 2000; 21: 407-413.
107. Alves TC, Rays J, Fraguas R Jr., et al. Localized cerebral blood flow reductions in patients with heart failure: a study using 99mTc-HMPAO SPECT. J Neuroimaging 2005; 15: 150-156.
108. Hays AG, Sacco RL, Rundek T, et al. Left ventricular systolic dysfunction and the risk of ischemic stroke in a multiethnic population. Stroke 2006; 37: 1715-1719.
109. Dries DL, Rosenberg YD, Waclawiw MA, Domanski MJ. Ejection fraction and risk of thromboembolic events in patients with systolic dysfunction and sinus rhythm: evidence for gender differences in the studies of left ventricular dysfunction trials. [Erratum appears in J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32: 555]. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 29: 1074-1080.
110. Koniaris LS, Goldhaber SZ. Anticoagulation in dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31: 745-748.
111. Dunkman WB, Johnson GR, Carson PE, et al. Incidence of thromboembolic events in congestive heart failure. The V-HeFT VA Cooperative Studies Group. Circulation 1993; 87: VI94-101.
112. Kyrle PA, Korninger C, Gossinger H, et al. Prevention of arterial and pulmonary embolism by oral anticoagulants in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Thromb Haemost 1985; 54: 521-523.
113. Massie BM, Krol WF, Ammon SE, et al. The Warfarin and Antiplatelet Therapy in Heart Failure trial (WATCH): rationale, design, and baseline patient characteristics. J Card Fail 2004; 10: 101-112.
114. Massie BM, Collins JF, Ammon SE, et al. Randomized trial of warfarin, aspirin, and clopidogrel in patients with chronic heart failure: the Warfarin and Antiplatelet Therapy in Chronic Heart Failure (WATCH) trial. Circulation 2009; 119: 1616-1624.
115. Pullicino P, Thompson JL, Barton B, et al. Warfarin versus aspirin in patients with reduced cardiac ejection fraction (WARCEF): rationale, objectives, and design. J Card Fail 2006; 12: 39-46.
116. Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Chatterjee K, et al. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing Committee to Revise the 1998 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease) developed in collaboration with the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: e1-e148.
117. Mills P, Leech G, Davies M, Leathan A. The natural history of a non-stenotic bicuspid aortic valve. Br Heart J 1978; 40: 951-957.
118. Salem DN, Levine HJ, Pauker SG, Eckman MH, Daudelin DH. Antithrombotic therapy in valvular heart disease. Chest 1998; 114: 590S-601S.
119. Salgado AV, Furlan AJ, Salcedo E. Risk of stroke in patients with congenital bicuspid valve. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 1991; 1: 61-63.
120. Stein PD, Dalen JE, Goldman S, Theroux P. Antithrombotic therapy in patients with saphenous vein and internal mammary artery bypass grafts. Chest 1998; 114: 658S-665S.
121. Davidson CJ, Skelton TN, Kisslo KB, et al. The risk for systemic embolization associated with percutaneous balloon valvuloplasty in adults. A prospective comprehensive evaluation. Ann Intern Med 1988; 108: 557-560.
122. Petty GW, Orencia AJ, Khandheria BK, Whisnant JP. A population-based study of stroke in the setting of mitral valve prolapse: risk factors and infarct subtype classification. Mayo Clin Proc 1994; 69: 632-634.
123. Wolf PA, Sila CA. Cerebral ischemia with mitral valve prolapse. Am Heart J 1987; 113: 1308-1315.
124. Stein PD, Alpert JS, Dalen JE, Horstkotte D, Turpie AG. Antithrombotic therapy in patients with mechanical and biological prosthetic heart valves. Chest 1998; 114: 602S-610S.
125. Landing BH, Farber S. Tumors of the Cardiovascular System. Atlas of Tumor Pathology, 1st ed. Washington, D. C.: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; 1956.
126. Reynen K. Frequency of primary tumors of the heart. Am J Cardiol 1996; 77: 107.
127. Aziz F, Baciewicz FA, Jr. Lambl's excrescences: review and recommendations. Tex Heart Inst J 2007; 34: 366-368.
128. Dismukes WE. Management of infective endocarditis. Cardiovasc Clin 1981; 11: 189-208.
129. Fleming HA. General principles of the treatment of infective endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1987; 20(suppl A): 143-145.
130. Hart RG, Foster JW, Luther MF, Kanter MC. Stroke in infective endocarditis. Stroke 1990; 21: 695-700.
131. Prabhakaran S. Neurologic complications of endocarditis. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology 2008; 14: 53-73.
132. Robbins MJ, Eisenberg ES, Frishman WH. Infective endocarditis: a pathophysiologic approach to therapy. Cardiol Clin 1987; 5: 545-562.
133. Salgado AV, Furlan AJ, Keys TF, Nichols TR, Beck GJ. Neurologic complications of endocarditis: a 12-year experience. Neurology 1989; 39: 173-178.
134. Reynen K. Cardiac myxomas. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1610-1617.
135. Kizer JR, Devereux RB. Clinical practice. Patent foramen ovale in young adults with unexplained stroke. [Erratum appears in N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2401]. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2361-2372.
136. Mas JL, Arquizan C, Lamy C, et al. Recurrent cerebrovascular events associated with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1740-1746.
137. Handke M, Harloff A, Olschewski M, Hetzel A, Geibel A. Patent foramen ovale and cryptogenic stroke in older patients. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2262-2268.
138. Freeman WD, Aguilar M. Anticoagulation therapy for cardioembolic stroke prevention in the elderly: defining benefits and risks. Aging Health 2010; 6: 439-450.