With All Deliberate Delay: Kennedy, Johnson, and School Desegregation

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 155-192

  Kotlowski, Dean ^a  

^a SALISBURY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79960496244     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jph.2005.0013     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. “White House Pattern Seen in Desegregation,” Los Angeles Times, 3 December 1969, 1-A, 2.
2. A mostly favorable account of Kennedy's handling of civil rights is Carl M. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (New York, 1977)
3. while more critical accounts include Mark Stern, Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights (New Brunswick, N.J. 1992), 1-112;
4. Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 1984), 60-96;
5. Kenneth O'Reilly, Nixon's Piano: Presidents and Racial Politics from Washington to Clinton (New York, 1995), 189-237;
6. Robert Dallek, An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963 (Boston, 2003), 707.
7. Favorable interpretations of Johnson's handling of civil rights include Steven F. Lawson, “Civil Rights,” in Exploring the Johnson Years, ed. Robert A. Divine (Austin, 1981), 93-114;
8. John Morton Blum, Years of Discord: American Politics and Society, 1961-1974 (New York, 1991), 162-86;
9. Irving Bernstein, Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson (New York, 1996), 80-81, 244;
10. Joseph A. Califano Jr. The Triumph and Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson (College Station, Tex. 2000), 55-57
11. Jeremy D. Mayer, “LBJ Fights White Backlash: The Racial Politics of the 1964 Presidential Campaign,” Prologue 33 (Spring 2001): 7-19.
12. More critical accounts include Matusow, Unraveling of America, 180–216;
13. O'Reilly, Nixon's Piano, 239–76;
14. Robert A. Caro, The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Vol. 3, Master of the Senate (New York, 2002), 711-60;
15. Robert Dallek, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times (New York, 1998), 111-21, 211-26, 322-29.
16. Works that portray Nixon as an opportunistic reformer in domestic affairs include Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York, 1990)
17. John David Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago, 1996)
18. J. Brooks Flippen, Nixon and the Environment (Albuquerque, 2000)
19. Gareth Davies, “The Great Society After Johnson: The Case of Bilingual Education,” Journal of American History 88 (March 2002): 1405-29.
20. Scholars who credit Nixon with having some liberal principles include Tom Wicker, One of Us: Richard Nixon and the American Dream (New York, 1991)
21. Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York, 1994)
22. Melvin Small, The Presidency of Richard Nixon (Lawrence, Kan. 1999)
23. Dean J. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge, Mass. 2001)
24. Iwan Morgan, Nixon (London, 2002), 67-94.
25. The literature on the civil rights struggle and resultant backlash is large and growing. See Robert Weisbrot, Freedom Bound: A History of America's Civil Rights Movement (New York, 1990)
26. Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1992, rev. ed. (New York, 1992)
27. Taylor Branch's two volumes, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-1963 (New York, 1988) and
28. Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963-1965 (New York, 1998)
29. John A. Salmond, “My Mind Set on Freedom”: A History of the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago, 1997).
30. Conservative backlash is discussed in William C. Berman, America's Right Turn: Nixon to Clinton, 2d ed. (Baltimore, 1998)
31. Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Italians and Jews of Brooklyn Against Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass. 1983)
32. Ronald P. Formisano, Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1991)
33. Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York, 1995).
34. Policy historians have analyzed the events of the 1950s, especially the social, political, and legal impact of Brown. See Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York, 1975)
35. J. Harvie Wilkinson, From Brown to Bakke: The Supreme Court and School Integration (New York, 1979)
36. George R. Metcalf, From Little Rock to Boston: The History of School Desegregation (Westport, Conn. 1983)
37. Tony Freyer, Little Rock: A Constitutional Interpretation (Westport, Conn. 1984)
38. Michael Klarman, “How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis,” Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 81-118;
39. James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York, 2001). Other scholars have examined how Kennedy and Johnson diffused crises, such as protests in Birmingham, Alabama, during 1963, or how they worked to pass civil rights laws and enhance employment opportunities. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction;
40. James N. Giglio, The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (Lawrence, Kan. 1991), 159-87;
41. Irving Bernstein, Promises Kept: John F. Kennedy's New Frontier (New York, 1991), 44-117;
42. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 27–297;
43. Bernstein, Guns or Butter (New York, 1996), 43-81, 214-44;
44. Lawson, “Civil Rights,” 93–125;
45. Steven F. Lawson, “Mixing Moderation with Militancy: Lyndon Johnson and African-American Leadership,” in The Johnson Years, Vol. 3: LBJ at Home and Abroad, ed. Robert A. Divine (Lawrence, Kan. 1994), 82-116.
46. The best account of school desegregation during the 1960s remains Gary Orfield, The Reconstruction of Southern Education: The Schools and the 1964 Civil Rights Act (New York, 1969).
47. Revisionist accounts of Nixon's school desegregation policies include Wicker, One of Us, 484–94;
48. Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 83–90;
49. Dean J. Kotlowski, “Nixon's Southern Strategy Revisited,” Journal of Policy History 10, no. 2 (1998): 207-38;
50. Idem, Nixon's Civil Rights, 15–43.
51. President Gerald R. Ford and school desegregation has received treatment in Lawrence J. McAndrews, “Missing the Bus: Gerald Ford and School Desegregation,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 27 (Winter 1997): 791-804.
52. Dallek, An Unfinished Life, 518.
53. Jack Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts: How a Dedicated Band of Lawyers Fought for the Civil Rights Revolution (New York, 1994), 110.
54. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 233–54, 301-45, 468-70.
55. Graham especially sees a policymaking vacuum occurring under Nixon. See Hugh Davis Graham, “Richard Nixon and Civil Rights: Explaining an Enigma,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 (Winter 1996): 93-100, 102-4.
56. For an insightful look at the unintended consequences of national policymaking, see Steven M. Gillon, “That's Not What We Meant to Do”: Reform and Its Unintended Consequences in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 2000).
57. David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York, 1993), 423.
58. Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 23.
59. See Jack Bass, Unlikely Heroes: The Dramatic Story of the Southern Judges Who Translated the Supreme Court's Brown Decision into a Revolution for Equality (New York, 1981), 15-22, 112-24.
60. Jack Bass, Taming the Storm: The Life and Times of Judge Frank M. Johnson, Jr. and the South's Fight over Civil Rights (New York, 1993), 273.
61. John Bartlow Martin, The Deep South Says Never (New York, 1957), 1 (quotation).
62. On the issue of interracial marriage, see also Robert Sherrill, Gothic Politics in the Deep South (New York, 1969), 37, 90, 228, 286.
63. James Graham Cook, The Segregationists (New York, 1962), 204.
64. James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (New York, 1996), 391.
65. Steve Neal, The Eisenhowers (Lawrence, Kan. 1984), 383.
66. Numan V. Bartley, The New South, 1945-1980 (Baton Rouge, 1995), 195.
67. Bartley, The New South, 159;
68. Robert Frederick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville, Tenn. 1984), 204-5.
69. “Stevenson Favors Going Slow on Desegregation,” New York Herald Tribune, 8 February 1956, Folder 9, Box 354, Adlai E. Stevenson Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Library, Princeton University (PU), Princeton, New Jersey.
70. “Eric Sevareid, CBS Radio News Analysis,” 14 February 1956;
71. News release, 14 February 1956–all in Folder 9, Box 354, Stevenson Papers, PU.
72. Richard A. Watson, The Presidential Contest (New York, 1984), 86.
73. Herbert S. Parmet, Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (New York, 1980), 408-14.
74. Edwin O. Guthman and Jeffrey Shulman, eds. Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words (New York, 1988), 149.
75. “Record of Senator John F. Kennedy (Dem.-Mass.) on Civil Rights and Race Relations,” no date, Folder: Civil Rights 11/3/58-2/6/59, Box 9, Subject Files 1953-60, Sorensen Papers, JFKL.
76. Jackie Robinson Column, no date, Folder: Jackie Robinson, Box 649, General Correspondence, Richard M. Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives-Pacific Southwest Region, Laguna Niguel, California.
77. “Statement of Senator John F. Kennedy,” 27 September 1957, Folder: Civil Rights 9/10/57-3/28/58, Box 9, Subject Files 1953-60, Sorensen Papers, JFKL.
78. JFK news release, 18 October 1957, Folder: Civil Rights 9/10/57-3/28/58, Box 9, Subject Files 1953-60, Sorensen Papers, JFKL.
79. “Wilkins Defends Plank on Rights,” New York Times, 18 July 1960, 11;
80. Chester Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Life, 1941-1969 (New York, 1971), 291;
81. Howard B. Schaffer, Chester Bowles: New Dealer in the Cold War (Cambridge, Mass. 1993), 174.
82. “Statement on Democratic Civil Rights Plank,” 13 July 1960, Folder 4, Box 1001, Series II, Keating Papers, UR.
83. Louis E. Martin Oral History for the John F. Kennedy Library, 14 March 1966, 14, Folder 8, Box 5, Louis Martin Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (LC), Washington, D.C.
84. “Wilkins Defends Plank on Rights,” New York Times, 18 July 1960, 11;
85. “Barnett Presses His Bid for Bolt,” New York Times, 28 July 1960, 18 (quotation).
86. Harris Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings: Making Sense of the Sixties (New York, 1980), 51.
87. “Transcript of Kennedy's News Conference in Los Angeles,” New York Times, 17 July 1960, 35.
88. “Statement by Senator Joseph S. Clark and Representative Emanuel Celler,” 16 September 1960, Folder: Civil Rights–General 1960-62, Box 462, Emanuel Celler Papers, LC.
89. Memorandum to Senator Kennedy, “Civil Rights and the August Session,” 28 July 1960, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 1044, JFK Pre-Presidential Papers, JFKL.
90. Speech excerpts, “Kennedy Calls for Executive Leadership,” 12 October 1960, Folder: Civil Rights–Kennedy, Box 2-W(C)
91. Joseph S. Clark Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania (HSP), Philadelphia.
92. Bernstein, Promises Kept, 39.
93. Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (New York, 1965), 157.
94. Louis E. Martin Oral History for the John F. Kennedy Library, 7 April 1966, 1–2, Folder 8, Box 5, Martin Papers, LC.
95. Joseph S. Clark Oral History for Former Members of Congress, Inc. 2 October 1978, 11, Box 2, Association of Former Members of Congress Papers, LC
96. “A BILL To provide for the all deliberate speed desegregation of public schools,” 2 March 1961, Folder: School Desegregation Act of 1961, Box 41, Rauh Papers, LC.
97. “President Kennedy's Press Conference,” 8 March 1961, Folder: Civ. Rights– Kennedy, Box 2-W(C), Clark Papers, HSP.
98. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 150.
99. “Memo JSC Recount of Morse's Description of Morse's Talk with Hill,” 15 November 1961, Folder: JSC-Morse-Hill, Box 2-W(D), Clark Papers, HSP (quotation). On Kennedy's silence, see Dallek, An Unfinished Life, 331.
100. Steve Neal et al. “Political Giant Joseph Clark Dead at 88,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 15 January 1990, 1.
101. Clark, a former mayor of Philadelphia, later remembered: “All the 'right-thinking people' in Philadelphia were strong on civil rights.” Clark Oral History, 2 October 1978, 10, Box 2, Association of Former Members of Congress Papers, LC
102. James M. Quigley to the Secretary, no date, Folder 10, Box 114, Wilbur J. Cohen Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin (SHSW), Madison.
103. Wilbur J. Cohen, “A Tribute to Senator Hill,” 11 March 1968, Folder 2, Box 96, Cohen Papers, SHSW.
104. Guthman and Shulman, eds. Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 149.
105. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Robert Kennedy and His Times (Boston, 1978), 372.
106. Burke Marshall Oral History, 13 June 1964, 65, JFKL.
107. “Integration and the Schools,” New York Times, 26 September 1961, 38 (quotation)
108. “Desegregation Bill in Congress,” Washington Star, 14 February 1963, and
109. “Desegregation Bill in Congress,” Washington Star, 14 February 1963, Folder: School Deseg. 1963, Box 2-W(B), Clark Papers, HSP.
110. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 139.
111. Guthman and Shulman, Robert Kennedy: In His Own Words, 78 (quotation).
112. “From Congressional Quarterly, No. 15,” 14 April 1961, Folder: Civ. Rights–Kennedy, Box 2-W(C), Clark Papers, HSP. Bryan K. Landsberg, who worked as a lawyer at the Justice Department's Civil Rights Division between 1964 and 1986, agrees with Marshall and RFK: “Theoretically, the attorney general might have brought criminal prosecutions against school officials who willfully violated Brown. However, the ambiguities of Brown could have made it difficult to prove the requisite specific intent to deny a constitutional right.”
113. Bryan K. Landsberg, Enforcing Civil Rights: Race Discrimination and the Department of Justice (Lawrence, Kans. 1997), 138.
114. See also John T. Elliff, The United States Department of Justice and Individual Rights, 1937-1962 (New York, 1987), 673-74.
115. “Moderates Make Gain in the South,” New York Times, 1 October 1961, 61.
116. Civil Rights fact sheet, no date, Folder: Civil Rights General, Box 2, Campaign Files, RFK Senate Papers, JFKL; Marshall to RFK, 31 August 1963, Folder: Attorney Genebal July 1961-August 1963, Box 8, Burke Marshall Papers, JFKL.
117. Department of Justice, “A Report of the Activities of the Department of Justice in Civil Rights, 1963,” Folder: Year End Reports 1961-64, Box 16, Marshall Papers, JFKL.
118. “Wilkins Calls Climate Better in School Integration Fight,” New York Times, 21 May 1962, 6.
119. Charles V. Hamilton, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.: The Political Biography of an American Dilemma (New York, 1991), 226-35.
120. Diary entry, 13 September 1957, in The Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York, 1981), 347.
121. Hugh Davis Graham, The Uncertain Triumph: Federal Education Policy in the Kennedy and Johnson Years (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1984), 19.
122. WRC-TV, NBC, “A Moment gith. Abraham A. Ribicoff,” 7 July 1962, Box 20, Abraham Ribicoff Papers, LC.
123. Wilbur J. Cohen Oral History for the John F. Kennedy Library, 24 May 1971, Folder 2, Box 23, Cohen Papers, SHSW.
124. “Kennedy Warns on School Plans,” New York Times, 9 March 1961, 17.
125. “Testimony of Secretary Ribicoff Before House Committee on Education and Labor,” no date [1962], Folder 2, Box 329, Series II, Keating Papers, UR.
126. UPI news release, 29 March 1962, Folder 1, Box 1006, Series II, Keating Papers, UR.
127. Memorandum, “Suggested points to be discussed with Secretary Ribicoff,” 29 March 1962 and
128. HEW news release, 30 March 1962 Folder: Health, Education, and Welfare Dept. 1962-65, Box I:98, NAACP-Washington Bureau Papers, LC.
129. “Statement of Burke Marshall,” 16 April 1962, Folder 3, Box 1006, Series II, Keating Papers, UR.
130. Anthony J. Celebrezze to Keating, 6 March 1963, Folder 10, Box 204, Series II, Keating Papers, UR.
131. Emanuel Celler news release, 14 January 1963, Folder: Civil Rights– Desegregation of Schools, Box 462, Celler Papers, LC.
132. All quotations come from Bowles, Promises to Keep, 445–46.
133. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York, 1988), 236-58.
134. Branch, Parting the Waters, 808, 823-24 (quotation).
135. Louis Martin notebook, 16 June 1963, Folder 5, Box 12, Martin Papers, LC.
136. “Provisions of the Civil Rights Bill,” New York Times, 30 March 1964, 16;
137. Wayne Morse news release, no date, Folder: Civil Rights–Powell Amendments, Box 2- W(E), Clark Papers, HSP. The story of this bill's origins and passage are covered in Graham, Civil Rights Era, 74-152, and Charles Whalen and Barbara Whalen, The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Cabin John, Md. 1984).
138. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 82.
139. “Statement by James M. Quigley,” 26 June 1963, Folder 1, Box 115, Cohen Papers, SHSW (first quotation)
140. Caro, Master of the Senate, xx-xxiv;
141. Doris Kearns, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream (New York, 1976), 165-66.
142. Eric F. Goldman, The Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson (New York, 1974), 68.
143. Dallek, Flawed Giant, 212.
144. Flawed Giant 445.
145. Caro, Master of the Senate, 785–89;
146. Michael Beschloss, Reaching for Glory: Lyndon Johnson's Secret White House Tapes, 1964-1965 (New York, 2001), 319 (quotation).
147. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 190–94.
148. Dallek, Flawed Giant, 324.
149. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 194.
150. Larry Berman, “Johnson and the White House Staff,” in Exploring the Johnson Years, ed. Divine, 191.
151. Lawson, “Civil Rights,” 112-13.
152. “By slowing administration efforts for civil rights and making them less visible,” Dallek asserted, “Johnson hoped not only to get more done for blacks in the long run but also to free himself to advance the many other programs he believed essential to a Great Society.”
153. Dallek, Flawed Giant, 226.
154. Memorandum attached to David S. Seeley to Keppel, 5 November 1965, Folder 4, Box 115, Cohen Papers, SHSW (first quotation); “Summary of Statement of Policies Under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,” no date, Folder: Ex HU 2-5 Education Schooling 11/22/63-9/6/65, Box 50, WHCF-HU, LBJL (second quotation).
155. James G. Busick, Superintendent of Schools, “Dorchester County Policy Concerning Desegregation,” no date, Folder: 1963 Cambridge Racial Problems and Correspondence, J. Millard Tawes Papers, J. Millard Tawes Library, Crisfield, Maryland.
156. “Statement Circulated at Swarthmore College,” 24 April 1963, Folder: 1963 Cambridge Racial Problems and Correspondence, Tawes Papers, Tawes Library.
157. Memorandum attached to Seeley to Keppel, 5 November 1965, Folder 4, Box 115, Cohen Papers, SHSW.
158. Keppel to Celebrezze, 13 April 1965, Folder: Civil Rights Act of 1964, Box 195, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA; Orfield, Reconstruction of Southern Education, 96.
159. G. V. Foster to John Nesbitt, 19 May 1965, Folder: Civil Rights-Alabama, Box 198, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA.
160. Seeley to Edwin G. Thurman, 7 July 1965, Folder: Civil Rights Act Guidelines February-December 1965, Box 197, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA.
161. United States Commission on Civil Rights, Survey of School Desegregation in the Southern and Border States, 1965-66, February 1966, Folder: Civil Rights Act of 1966– Printed Material, Box 475, Celler Papers, LC.
162. Unsigned, undated memorandum, “Impact of the Civil Rights Crisis on the Political Picture,” [circa 1958], Folder 2, Box 355, Stevenson Papers, PU.
163. “N.C. Official Gets U.S. Education Job,” Charlotte Observer, 19 December 1965, 1A, 12A; Harold Howe II to Henry Schwartzschild, 5 January 1966, Folder: HEW 1965-68, Box I:102, LCCR Papers, LC; Harold Howe II Speech, “Picking Up the Options,” 1 April 1968, Folder 3, Box 96, Cohen Papers, SHSW;
164. News clippings, “Johnson Popularity Up in South Since Election,” 3 February 1965, and
165. “No Sizeable GOP Shift Is Evident in South,” 4 April 1965, Folder: Polls 1964-1966, Box 36, Graham T. Molitor Papers, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York.
166. Gardner to LBJ, 9 February 1966, Folder 8, Box 116, Cohen Papers, SHSW.
167. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 194;
168. Emmette S. Redford and Richard T. McCulley, White House Operations: The Johnson Presidency (Austin, Tex. 1986), 148-49.
169. Dallek, Flawed Giant, 196.
170. Hugh Davis Graham, “The Transformation of Federal Education Policy,” in Exploring the Johnson Years, ed. Divine, 155.
171. Arthur Krock, “In the Nation: The Chicago School Affair,” New York Times, 10 October 1965, 10; UPI Wire Report, 7 October 1965, Folder 5, Box 115, Cohen Papers, SHSW.
172. Wilbur J. Cohen Oral History, 10 May 1969, 10, LBJL.
173. “Johnson Upholds Hospital, School Desegregation Policy,” Baltimore Sun, 1 October 1966, 1 (quotations); Cater to Ralph Huitt, 29 March 1968, Folder: HU 2-5 1/1/68-6/19/68, Box 52, WHCF-HU, LBJL.
174. “Howe Sticks to His Guns on School Integration,” Washington Star, 19 November 1966, Folder: LL10 Civil Rights-Guidelines-Press Releases Only, Box 196, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA.
175. “School Integration on U.S. Guidelines Is Ordered by Court,” New York Times, 30 December 1966, 1.
176. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, 143–45.
177. “New Guidelines Set to Foster Equality in Northern Schools,” New York Times, 19 March 1968, 1;
178. HEW Memorandum, “Policies on Elementary and Secondary School Compliance.” February 1968, Folder: School Guidelines March 1968, Box 75, Clark Papers, LBJL.
179. See “House Panel Cuts Education Funds,” New York Times, 21 June 1968, 23.
180. “Justices Caution South on Schools,” New York Times, 28 May 1968, 33.
181. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 374;
182. Orfield, Reconstruction of Southern Education, 96.
183. This figure was widely reported and accepted. See James J. Kilpatrick, “Integration Effort Loses Its Magic, Reformers Find,” Washington Star, 14 November 1968, Folder: Harold Howe II-Clippings 1965-69, Box 394, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA.
184. William L. Taylor, “Executive Implementation of Federal Civil Rights Laws,” 3 December 1968, Folder 7, Box II:11, LCCR Papers, LC.
185. James Hamilton to Committee on Compliance and Enforcement, 24 December 1968, Folder: HEW 1965-68, Box I:102, LCCR Papers, LC.
186. “U.S. Opens Drive to Desegregate Schools in South,” New York Times, 7 July 1968, 1.
187. Peter Irons, Jim Crow's Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York, 2002), 206.
188. “Progress Slight, Howe Says of School Integration Effort,” Washington Post, 10 November 1968, Folder: Harold Howe II-Clippings 1965-69, Box 394, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA.
189. “Accomplishments in Civil Rights in 1965,” no date, Folder: Ex HU 2-5 Education Schooling 12/17/65-3/31/66, Box 50, WHCF-HU, LBJL;
190. “Civil Rights: The Democratic Record,” no date, Folder: Clippings, James Gaither Files, LBJL;
191. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York, 1993), 1046.
192. John Ehrlichman, Witness to Power: The Nixon Years (New York, 1982), 231.
193. Small, The Presidency of Richard Nixon, 183.
194. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights, 23–31.
195. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights, 37.
196. Nixon's Civil Rights 31.
197. Graham, “Richard Nixon and Civil Rights: Explaining an Enigma,” 95.
198. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights, 31–37, 271;
199. Morgan, Nixon, 82–83.
200. Wicker, One of Us, 506.
201. Michael E. Mayer, “With Much Deliberation and Some Speed: Eisenhower and the Brown Decision,” Journal of Southern History 52, no. 1 (1986): 45.
202. Wicker, One of Us, 504.
203. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights, 29.
204. James J. Kilpatrick, “Arrogant Commands from U.S. Education Office,” Seattle Times, 20 March 1966, Folder: Civil Rights Act-Guidelines-Press Releases Only, Box 196, Office Files of the Commissioner of Education, RG 12, NA (first quotation); Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights, 30 (second quotation).
205. Strom Thurmond Oral History, 1 February 1974, 15, Oral History #A-166, Southern Oral History Project, Southern Historical Collection, Louis Round Wilson Library, University of North Carolina (UNC), Chapel Hill.
206. Harry S. Dent Oral History, 22 February 1974, 25
207. Oral History #A-147, Southern Oral History Project, Southern Historical Collection, Wilson Library, UNC.