The personalization of politics in Western democracies: Causes and consequences on leader-follower relationships

Leadership Quarterly

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 697-709

  Garzia, Diego ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SIENA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Leader effects; Leaders' personality traits; Party identification; Personalization of politics; Political marketing

Indexed keywords

EID: 79960468358     PISSN: 10489843     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.05.010     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Adorno T., Frenkel-Brunswik E., Levinson D., Sanford R. The authoritarian personality 1950, Harper and Row, New York.
2. Arzheimer K. Dead men walking? Party identification in Germany, 1977-2002. Electoral Studies 2006, 25:791-807.
3. Barber J. The presidential character: Predicting performance in the White House 1977, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
4. Barisione M. L'immagine del leader. Quanto conta per gli elettori? 2006, Il Mulino, Bologna.
5. Barisione M. L'orientamento al leader: Forme, effetti, dinamiche. Gli italiani e la politica 2007, Il Mulino, Bologna. M. Marraffi (Ed.).
6. Barisione M. Valence image and the standardisation of democratic political leadership. Leadership. 2009, 5:41-60.
7. Barisione M. So what difference do leaders make? Candidates' images and the 'conditionality' of leader effects on voting. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 2009, 19:473-500.
8. Bartels L. The impact of candidate traits in American presidential elections. Leaders' personalities and the outcomes of democratic elections 2002, Oxford University Press, Oxford. A. King (Ed.).
9. Bartle J., Bellucci P. Political parties and partisanship. Social identity and individual attitudes 2009, Routledge, London and New York.
10. Bartle J., Crewe I. The impact of party leaders in Britain: Strong assumptions, weak evidence. Leaders' personalities and the outcomes of democratic elections 2002, Oxford University Press, Oxford. A. King (Ed.).
11. Bass B. Stogdill's handbook on leadership 1981, Free Press, New York.
12. Bauman Z. The individualized society 2001, Polity Press, Cambridge.
13. Bean C. The electoral influence of party leader images in Australia and New Zealand. Comparative Political Studies 1993, 26:111-132.
14. Bean C., Mughan A. Leadership effects in parliamentary elections in Australia and Britain. American Political Science Review 1989, 83:1165-1179.
15. Bellucci P. Changing models of electoral choice in Italy. Modern Italy 2007, 12:55-72.
16. Bellucci P., Whiteley P. Modeling electoral choice in Europe in the twenty-first century: An introduction. Electoral Studies 2006, 25:419-423.
17. Blondel J. Political leadership. Towards a general analysis 1987, Sage, London.
18. Bowler S., Farrell D. Electoral strategies and political marketing 1992, Macmillan, New York.
19. Brettschneider F., Gabriel O. The nonpersonalization of voting behaviour in Germany. Leaders' personalities and the outcomes of democratic elections 2002, Oxford University Press, Oxford. A. King (Ed.).
20. Budge I., Crewe I., Farlie D. Party identification and beyond 1976, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
21. Butler D., Stokes D. Political change in Britain 1974, Macmillan, London. 2nd Edition.
22. Byrne D. The attraction paradigm 1971, Academic Press, New York.
23. Campbell A., Converse P., Miller W., Stokes D. The American voter 1960, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.
24. Campus D. L'antipolitica al governo. De Gaulle, Reagan, Berlusconi 2007, Il Mulino, Bologna.
25. Campus D. Mediatization and personalization of politics in Italy and France: The cases of Berlusconi and Sarkozy. International Journal of Press/Politics 2010, 20:1-17.
26. Caprara G., Zimbardo P. Personalizing politics. The American Psychologist 2004, 59:581-594.
27. Carmines E., Stimson J. The two faces of issue voting. American Political Science Review 1980, 74:78-91.
28. Clarke H., Sanders D., Stewart M., Whiteley P. Political choice in Britain 2004, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
29. Converse P. The nature of belief systems in mass politics. Ideology and discontent 1964, Free Press, New York. D. Apter (Ed.).
30. Curtice J. Elections as beauty contests: Do the rules matter?. Paper presented at the International Conference on 'Portugal at the Polls', Lisbon, 27-28 February 2003.
31. Curtice J., Blais A. Follow my leader? A cross-national analysis of leadership effects in parliamentary democracies. Working Paper 91 2001, Centre for Research into Elections and Social Trends, Department of Sociology, University of Oxford.
32. Curtice J., Holmerg S. Party leaders and party choice. The European Voter 2005, Oxford University Press, Oxford. J. Thomassen (Ed.).
33. Cwalina W., Falkowski A., Newman B. A cross-cultural theory of voter behavior 2008, The Haworth Press, New York and London.
34. D'Souza D. Ronald Reagan: How an ordinary man become an extraordinary leader 1997, Free Press, New York.
35. Dalton R. Cognitive mobilization and partisan dealignment in advanced industrial democracies. Journal of Politics 1984, 46:264-284.
36. Dalton R. Citizen politics in Western democracies 1988, Chatham House, Chatham.
37. Dalton R., McAllister I., Wattenberg M. The consequences of partisan dealignment. Parties without partisans: Political change in advanced industrial democracies 2000, Oxford University Press, Oxford. R. Dalton, M. Wattenberg (Eds.).
38. Dalton R., Wattenberg M. The not so simple act of voting. The state of the discipline II 1993, The American Political Science Association, Washington. A. Finifter (Ed.).
39. Dalton R., Wattenberg M. Parties without partisans: Political change in advanced industrial democracies 2000, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
40. Davis D. News and politics. New directions in political communication 1990, Sage, Newbury Park, CA. D. Swanson, D. Nimmo (Eds.).
41. Denton R. Moral leadership and the American presidency 2005, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham.
42. Edelman M. Constructing the political spectacle 1988, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
43. Evans G., Andersen R. The impact of party leaders: How Blair lost Labour votes. Parliamentary Affairs 2005, 58:818-836.
44. Farrell D. Campaign strategies and tactics. Elections and voting in global perspective 1996, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. L. LeDuc, R. Niemi, P. Norris (Eds.).
45. Feldman S., Conover P. Candidates, issues and voters: The role of inference in political perception. Journal of Politics 1983, 45:810-839.
46. Fiorina M. Information and rationality in elections. Information and democratic processes 1990, University of Illinois Press, Urbana. J. Ferejohn, J. Kuklinski (Eds.).
47. Franklin M., Mackie T., Valen H. Electoral change: Responses to evolving social and attitudinal. structures in Western countries 1992, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
48. Funk C. The impact of scandal on candidate evaluations: An experimental test of the role of candidate traits. Political Behavior 1996, 18:1-24.
49. Funk C. Bringing the candidate into models of candidate evaluation. Journal of Politics 1999, 61:700-720.
50. Garzia D. Changing parties, changing partisans. The personalization of partisan attachments in Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. GESIS-Working Papers 2011/12. 2011, Bonn: Leibniz-Institut fur Sozialwissenschaften.
51. George A., George J. Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House: A personality study 1956, John Day, New York.
52. Gibson J. The senses considered as perceptual systems 1966, Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
53. Glass D. Evaluating presidential candidates: Who focuses on their personal attributes?. Public Opinion Quarterly 1985, 49:517-534.
54. Graetz B., McAllister I. Political leadership and electoral outcomes in Britain, 1974-1983. Comparative Political Studies 1987, 19:484-507.
55. Grasso G. Le immagini dei leader e le scelte degli elettori. Un'analisi delle elezioni italiane del 2001. Elezioni e personalizzazione della politica 2005, Aracne, Roma. F. Venturino (Ed.).
56. Greenberg S. Middle class dreams: Politics and power of the new American majority 1996, Times Books, New York.
57. Greenstein F. Personality and politics. Problems of evidence, inference, and conceptualization 1969, Markham, Chicago.
58. Greenstein F. The presidential difference: Leadership style from FDR to Clinton 2001, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
59. Hacker K. Presidential candidate images 2004, Rowman & Littlefield, New York.
60. Hazan R. Candidate selection. New challenges in the study of elections and voting 2002, Sage Publication, Thousand Oaks, CA. L. LeDuc, R. Niemi, P. Norris (Eds.).
61. Hollander E. Leadership, followership, self, and others. The Leadership Quarterly 1992, 3:43-54.
62. Holmberg S., Oscarsson H. Valjare. Svenskt valjarbeteemde under 50 ar 2004, Norstedst Juridik, Stockholm.
63. Kaase M. Is there personalization in politics? Candidates and voting behavior in Germany. International Political Science Review 1994, 15:211-230.
64. Kaid L., Chanslor M. Changing candidate images: The effects of political advertising. Candidate images in presidential election 1995, Praeger, Westport, CT. K. Hacker (Ed.).
65. Kaid L., Holtz-Bacha C. Political advertising in Western democracies: Parties and candidates on television 1995, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
66. Karvonen L. The personalisation of politics. A study of parliamentary democracies 2010, ECPR Press, Colchester.
67. Kassin S. Psychology 2003, Prentice-Hall, USA.
68. Katz R., Mair P. How parties organize: Change and adaptation in party organizations in Western democracies 1994, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
69. Kinder D. Presidential character revisited. Political cognition 1986, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. R. Lau, D. Sears (Eds.).
70. Kinder D., Peters M., Abelson R., Fiske S. Presidential prototypes. Political Behavior 1980, 2:315-337.
71. King A. Leaders' personalities and the outcomes of democratic elections 2002, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
72. Kirchheimer O. The transformation of the Western European party system. Political parties and political development 1966, Princeton University Press, Princeton. J. LaPalombara, M. Weiner (Eds.).
73. Kroh M. Personal voting: Individual and contextual determinants of political leadership. Gemeinsame Tagung des Arbeitskreises Interkultureller Demokratievergleich und der Ad-hoc-Gruppe Empirische Methoden der Politikwissenschaft 2004, Universität Lüneburg.
74. Laswell H. Psychopathology and politics 1930, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
75. LeDuc L., Niemi R., Norris P. Comparing democracies: Elections and voting in global perspective 1996, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
76. Lobo M. Short-term voting determinants in a young democracy: Leader effects in Portugal in the 2002 legislative elections. Electoral Studies 2006, 25:270-286.
77. Lobo M. Parties and leader effects. Impact of leaders in the vote for different types of parties. Party Politics 2008, 14:281-298.
78. Louw E. The media and political process 2005, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
79. Manin B. The principles of representative government 1997, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
80. Markus G. Political attitudes during an election year: A report on the 1980 NES panel study. American Political Science Review 1982, 76:538-560.
81. Matthews G., Deary I., Whiteman M. Personality traits 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
82. McAllister I. Leaders. Elections and voting in global perspective 1996, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. L. LeDuc, R. Niemi, P. Norris (Eds.).
83. McAllister I. Keeping them honest: Public and elite perceptions of ethical conduct among Australian legislators. Political Studies 2000, 48:22-37.
84. McAllister I. The personalization of politics. Oxford handbook of political behavior 2007, Oxford University Press, Oxford. R. Dalton, H. Klingemann (Eds.).
85. McCurley C., Mondak J. Inspected by #1184063113: The influence of incumbents' competence and integrity in U.S. House elections. American Journal of Political Science 1995, 39:864-885.
86. Mény Y., Surel Y. Par le peuple, pour le peuple: la populisme et les démocraties 1999, Fayard, Paris.
87. Meyrowitz J. No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on social behavior 1985, Oxford University Press, New York.
88. Miller W. The cross-national use of party identification as a stimulus to political inquiry. Party identification and beyond 1976, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ. I. Budge, I. Crewe, D. Farlie (Eds.).
89. Miller A., Miller W. Ideology in the 1972 election: Myth or reality. A rejoinder. American Political Science Review 1976, 70:832-849.
90. Miller W., Shanks M. The new American voter 1996, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
91. Miller A., Wattenberg M., Malanchuk O. Schematic assessments of presidential candidates. American Political Science Review 1986, 80:521-540.
92. Mitbø T. The electoral effect of party leader approval in Norway. Scandinavian Political Studies 1997, 20:135-158.
93. Mondak J. Competence, integrity, and the electoral success of congressional incumbents. Journal of Politics 1995, 57:1043-1069.
94. Mughan A. Media and the presidentialization of parliamentary elections 2000, Palgrave, London.
95. Neisser U. Cognitive psychology 1967, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
96. Newcomb T. The acquaintance process 1961, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
97. Newman B. Politics in an age of manufactured images. Journal of Mental Changes 1999, 5:7-26.
98. Nimmo D., Savage R. Candidates and their images 1976, Goodyear, Pacific Palisades.
99. Nisbett R., Wilson T. Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review 1977, 84:231-259.
100. Ohr D., Oscarsson H. Leader traits, leader image and vote choice. Paper presented at the 2003 Meeting of the European Consortium for Political Research, Marburg, 18-21 September 2003.
101. Page B. Choices and echoes in presidential elections 1978, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
102. Page B., Jones C. Reciprocal effects of policy preferences, party loyalties and the vote. American Political Science Review 1979, 73:1071-1090.
103. Pancer S., Brown S., Barr C. Forming impressions of political leaders: A cross-national comparison. Political Psychology 1999, 20:345-368.
104. Pasquino G. Personae non gratae? Personalizzazione e spettacolarizzazione della politica. Polis 1990, 4:207-208.
105. Pierce P. Political sophistication and the use of candidate traits in candidate evaluation. Political Psychology 1993, 14:21-36.
106. Pitkin H. The concept of representation 1967, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
107. Poguntke T., Webb P. The presidentialization of politics in democratic societies 2005, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
108. Popkin S., Gorman J., Phillips C. Comment: What have you done for me lately? Toward an investment theory of voting. American Political Science Review 1976, 70:779-805.
109. Rahat G., Shaefer T. The personalization(s) of politics: Israel, 1949-2003. Political Communication 2007, 24:65-80.
110. Rahn W., Aldrich J., Borgida E., Sullivan D. A social-cognitive model of candidate appraisal. Perspectives from political psychology 1990, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. J. Ferejohn, J. Kuklinski (Eds.).
111. Renshon S. The Clinton presidency: Campaigning, governing and the psychology of leadership 1995, Westview, Boulder, CO.
112. Rokeach M. The nature of human values 1973, The Free Press, New York.
113. Sani G. Il Fattore B. Le ragioni dell'elettore. Perché ha vinto il centro-destra nelle elezioni italiane del 2001 2002, Il Mulino, Bologna. M. Caciagli, P. Corbetta (Eds.).
114. Schmitt H., Ohr D. Are party leaders becoming more important in German elections? Leader effects on the vote in Germany, 1961-1998. Paper presented at the American Political Science Association annual conference, Washington D.C., 31 August-3 September 2000.
115. Sigel R. Effect of partisanship on the perception of political candidates. Public Opinion Quarterly 1964, 28:483-496.
116. Stewart M., Clarke H. The (un)importance of party leaders: Leader images and party choice in the 1987 British election. Journal of Politics 1992, 54:447-470.
117. Stokes D. Some dynamic elements of contest for the Presidency. American Political Science Review 1966, 60:19-28.
118. Sullivan J., Aldrich J., Borgida E., Rahn W. Candidate appraisal and human nature: Man and Superman in the 1984 election. Political Psychology 1990, 11:459-484.
119. Swanson D., Mancini P. Politics, media, and modern democracy: An international study of innovations in electoral campaigning and their consequences 1996, Praeger, Westport, CT.
120. Thompson J. The media and modernity: A social theory of the media 1995, Stanford University Press, Stanford.
121. Van der Brug W., Mughan A. Charisma, leader effects and support for right-wing populist parties. Party Politics 2007, 13:29-51.
122. Venturino F. La personalizzazione della politica italiana. Il ruolo dei leader nelle elezioni del 1996. Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica 2000, 30:295-327.
123. Wattenberg M. The rise of candidate-centered politics 1991, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
124. Webb P. La 'presidenzializzazione' e l'erosione del governo di partito nei sistemi parlamentari: il caso del Regno Unito. Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica 2004, 34:347-378.
125. Weber M. Gesammelte aufsätze zur wissenschaftslehre 1922, Mohr, Tübingen.