Sagacious bernard palissy: Pinchot, Marsh, and the Connecticut origins of American Conservation

Environmental History

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 4-37

  Stoll, Mark ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; AGROFORESTRY; CERAMICS; CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; LIGHT EFFECT; MARSH; MORALITY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; REFUGE;

GIFFORD PINCHOT NATIONAL FOREST; UNITED STATES; WASHINGTON [UNITED STATES];

EID: 79960375673     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: 19308892     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/envhis/emq141     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947), 1-2.
2. Betsy Fahlman, John Ferguson Weir: The Labor of Art (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1997), 168-69. Thanks to Rebecca D. Philpot, museum specialist and safety coordinator, Grey Towers National Historic Site, Milford, Pennsylvania, for bringing the medallions to my attention and supplying me with the photograph. Michaux was a botanist who published the first book on American trees.
3. Gifford Pinchot, "Government Forestry Abroad," Publications of the American Economic Association 6(3) (May 1891): 29
4. his textbook for government foresters, A Primer of Forestry: Part II, Practical Forestry (Washington, DC: G.P.O., 1905), 77.
5. Char Miller identified him as an "eighteenth-century naturalist." Gifford Pinchot and the Making of Modern Environmentalism (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004), 56.
6. L. Boppe, Traité de Sylviculture (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1889), x.
7. Miller, 55.
8. George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature, or, Physical Geography As Modified by Human Action (New York: Scribner, 1864), 103, 218, 447.
9. See also 238, 266, 296-97, 407, 447-49. Quotation, 297. The original quotation, "Ie ne puis assez detester une telle chose, & ne la puis appeler faute: mais une malediction, & un mal-heur à toute la France"
10. Bernard Palissy, Recepte véritable par laquelle tous les hommes de la France pourront apprendre agrave; multiplier et augmenter leurs thrésors. Item ceux qui n'ont jamais eu cognaissance des lettres pourront apprendre une philosophie nécessaire à tous les habitans de la terre. Item en ce livre est contenu le dessein d'un jardin délectable. ⋯Item le dessein et ordonnance d'une ville de forteresse la plus imprenable qu'homme ouyt jamais parler (La Rochelle: B. Breton, 1563), M.ii (available online from the Bibliothèque nationale de France, http:// gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k70461q, accessed September 22, 2009).
11. Pinchot biographer Char Miller concurs that Pinchot probably quoted from memory rather than checking his original. Pinchot published the quotation several times, always with the same wording, so he was probably simply quoting himself. Char Miller, personal communication.
12. Palissy has had numerous biographers, and the French have been particularly industrious. Based on extensive new research and recently discovered documents, by far the best is Leonard N. Amico, Bernard Palissy: In Search of Earthly Paradise (Paris: Flammarion, 1996), published simultaneously in French as À la Recherche du Paradis Terrestre: Bernard Palissy et ses Continuateurs (Paris: Flammarion, 1996). My summary of his life follows Amico.
13. The title has been variously translated. "True Recipe" is another common rendering. Henry Morley makes it "Trustworthy Receipt" ("receipt" being in England a formerly common alternative to "recipe," both meaning "formula" before being confined to their current meanings).
14. Pamela H. Smith, "Giving Voice to Hands: The Articulation of Material Literacy in the Sixteenth Century," in Popular Literacy: Studies in Cultural Practices and Poetics, ed. John Trimbur (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 82
15. Henry Heller, Labour, Science, and Technology in France, 1500-1620 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 118
16. Danièle Duport, Le jardin et la nature: Ordre et variété dans la littérature de la Renaissance (Geneva: Droz, 2002), 63-80. Duport offers a very convincing analysis of the purpose and design of Recepte véritable.
17. See also Jean Ceard, "Les talents de Bernard Palissy," in L'Intelligence du passé: les faits, l'écriture et le sens: mélanges offerts à Jean Lafond, eds. Pierre Aquilon, François Weil, and Jean Lafond (Tours: Université de Tours, 1988), 139-47
18. Frank Lestringant, "L'Éden et les ténèbres extérieures: de la Recepte véritable aux Discours admirables
19. Bernard Palissy, 1510-1590: l'écrivain, le réformé, le céramiste: journées d'études 29 et 30 juin 1990, Saintes, Abbaye-aux-dames: actes du colloque, ed. Frank Lestringant (Paris: Editions interuniversitaires, 1992), 119-30.
20. See Bernard Rivet, "Réflexions sur quelques aspects économiques de l'oeuvre de Bernard Palissy," in Lestringant, Bernard Palissy, 167-80. Stewardship in the modern sense is a recent concept. Puritan Sir Matthew Hale after the Restoration first articulated the notion of stewardship of the earth. The idea lay mostly dormant until the Progressives promoted it. Its contemporary currency dates only to the 1960s, when earth stewardship and related notions suddenly achieved widespread popularity.
21. Amico, 158-59; KennethWoodbridge, Princely Gardens: The Origins and Development of the French Formal Style (New York: Rizzoli, 1986), 84-87
22. Gilles Polizzi, "L'intégration du modèle: le Poliphile et le discours du jardin dans La recepte veritable"; and Yvette Quenot, "Du jardin de Bernard Palissy au jardin d'Olivier de Serres," both in Bernard Palissy, ed. Lestringant, 65-92, 93-103
23. Duport, 78-80; Palissy, Recepte véritable, H.ii.r; Amico, chap. 5.
24. Palissy, "The Naturalist Looking Out on Evil Days,"
25. Henry Morley, Palissy the Potter: The Life of Bernard Palissy, of Saintes, His Labours and Discoveries in Art and Science; with an Outline of His Philosophical Doctrines, and a Translation of Illustrative Selections from His Works (London: Chapman and Hall, 1852), 249-50. The original passage is in Palissy, Recepte véritable, M.ii.r and v.
26. Neil Kamil interpreted the animals as small, weak, innocent survivors that symbolized Huguenots themselves. Fortress of the Soul: Violence, Metaphysics, and Material Life in the Huguenots' New World, 1517-1751 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).
27. Hanna Rose Shell interprets them in connection with his artisanal and scientific researches. "Casting Life, Recasting Experience: Bernard Palissy's Occupation between Maker and Nature," Configurations 12 (2004): 1-40. Other interpretations are possible, because the creatures have variously emblematic, Paracelsian, alchemical, and Christian symbolism.
28. Heller, Labour, Science, and Technology, 98-99; Amico, 42.
29. Bernard Palissy, The Admirable Discourses of Bernard Palissy, tr. Aurèle la Rocque (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957), 94, 148. The original passage is in Palissy, Discours admirables de la nature des eaux et fontaines, tant naturelles qu'artificielles, des métaux, des sels et salines, des pierres, des terres, du feu et des émaux (Paris: Martin le jeune, 1580), 108-9, 148 (available online from the Bibliothèque nationale de France, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1050822, accessed September 22, 2009). On the Book of Nature among Protestants
30. see Klaas van Berkel and Arjo Vanderjagt, "Introduction," in The Book of Nature in Early Modern and Modern History, eds. Klaas van Berkel and Arjo Vanderjagt (Leuven: Peeters, 2006), ix.
31. Direct evidence of Bacon's attendance is lacking, and he never acknowledged intellectual debts to contemporaries, but given Bacon's interests and the scarcity of intellectual entertainment in sixteenth-century Paris, it would be surprising if he did not hear Palissy. Alexander Bruno Hanschmann, Bernard Palissy der Künstler, Naturforscher und Schriftsteller, als Vater der induktiven Wissenschaftsmethode des Bacon von Verulam (Leipzig: T. Weicher, 1903)
32. T. Clifford Allbutt, Palissy, Bacon, and the Revival of Natural Science (London: Oxford University Press, 1914).
33. Marsh, 447-49. 18. Palissy, Admirable Discourses, 63
34. Palissy, Discours admirables, 60-61.
35. Marsh, 103, 238, 407. The other recommendation by Palissy immediately precedes this passage and concerns the placement of "large stones across the deeper channels that come into your park. And by these means the violence of the waters and ravines will be lessened, and your water will flow quietly into your reservoirs." Palissy, Admirable Discourses, 63
36. original text, Palissy, Discours admirables, 60.
37. Marsh, 266.
38. Manuscript of Pierre de L'Estoile, quoted in Amico, 45, and given in full in French as Document XL, 238.
39. See Amico, 189-92, for a summary.
40. Interestingly, JohnWinthrop Jr. of Connecticut owned a copy of Discours admirables. John Winthrop, George Starkey, and C. A. Browne, "Scientific Notes from the Books and Letters of John Winthrop, Jr. (1606-1676)," Isis 11(2) (December 1928): 340. Written in Middle French, Recepte véritable has never been entirely translated and Discours admirables was translated only in 1957.
41. Gilbert Schrenck and Éric Surget, "Bernard Palissy dans l'oeuvre d'Agrippa d'Aubigné," in Bernard Palissy, ed. Lestringant.
42. Bernard Palissy, OEuvres de Bernard Palissy, revues sur les exemplaires de la bibliothèque du roi; avec des notes par MM. Faujas de Saint Fond et Gobet (Paris: Ruault, 1777).
43. André Jacquot, La forêt, son rôle dans la nature et les sociétés (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1911), 128. My translation.
44. Marie-Madeleine Fragonard, "Les Meubles de Palissy: Biographie d'artiste, légende et mythes," in Lestringant, Bernard Palissy, 25-37
45. Robert L. Herbert, "Impressions from Nature: Millet's Readings, from Montaigne to Charlotte Brontë," The Art Bulletin 89 (September 2007): 540-61.
46. David Lowenthal, George Perkins Marsh: Prophet of Conservation, rev. ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003), 268; Marsh, 55.
47. Hanschmann, 75-80; Amico, 189-217
48. Marshall P. Katz and Robert Lehr, Palissy Ware: Nineteenth-Century French Ceramists from Avisseau to Renoleau (London: Athlone, 1996). The editions were Bernard Palissy and Paul-Antoine Cap, OEuvres complètes de Bernard Palissy: édition conforme aux textes originaux imprimés du vivant de l'auteurs (Paris: J.-J. Dubochet, 1844)
49. Palissy and Anatole France, Les oeuvres publiées d'après les textes originaux avec une notice historique et bibliographique et une table analytique (Paris: Charavay frères, 1880)
50. Palissy, Les oeuvres de Maistre Bernard Palissy: Revue sur les textes originaux par B(enjamin) Fillon. Avec une Notice historique, bibliographique et iconologique par Louis Audiat, 2v (Niort: L. Clouzot, 1888).
51. Henry Morley, Palissy the Potter: The Life of Bernard Palissy, of Saintes, His Labours and Discoveries in Art and Science
52. with an Outline of His Philosophical Doctrines, and a Translation of Illustrative Selections from His Works (London: Chapman and Hall, 1852).
53. Anonymous, Household Names and How They Became So (London: John F. Shaw, 1863).
54. Anne Manning, The Provocations of Madame Palissy (London: Hall, 1853) (with other editions in 1854, 1856, 1863, 1870, and 1880)
55. Edwin Arlington Robinson, "The Wife of Palissy," Captain Craig: A Book of Poems (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1902), 166-68.
56. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Kéramos," in Kéramos: And Other Poems (Boston: Houghton, Osgood, 1878).
57. Note the chapter title, "Perseverance Rewarded," in Increase N. Tarbox, The Child's Book of True Stories (New York: Leavitt & Allen, 1852)
58. See also Samuel Smiles, Self-Help: With Illustrations of Character and Conduct (London: John Murray, 1859), chap. 3
59. Rev. Charles Hole, "Palissy the Potter, an Example of Perseverance," The Practical Moral Lesson Book, bk. 1, pt. 2 (London: Longmans, Green, 1871).
60. Cecillia Lucy Brightwell, Palissy the Potter; or, The Huguenot, Artist, and Martyr: A True Narrative [Later published as: Palissy, the Huguenot Potter: A True Tale] (New York: Phillips & Hunt, 1858). Other editions: New York: Carlton & Lanahan, 1858
61. Boston: Ira Bradley & Co., 1858
62. Boston: American Tract Society, 1858
63. London: Religious Tract Society, 1858, 1860, 1877, 1878, 1898, 1904
64. Boston: Hoyt, 1859, 1865
65. New York: Carlton & Porter, 1859
66. New York: Nelson & Phillips, 1859
67. Cincinnati: Hitchcock & Walden, 1859
68. Chicago: Tomlinson, 1859
69. Cincinnati: Crosby, 1859
70. Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union, 1860, 1864
71. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-school Work, 1860, 1864
72. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Co., 1870
73. New York: Tibbals, 1871
74. Portuguese edition: Palissy, o artista Huguenote (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1869).
75. Alonzo H. Quint, The Potomac and the Rapidan: Army Notes, from the Failure at Winchester to the Reënforcement of Rosecrans, 1861-3 (Boston: Crosby and Nichols, 1864), 94
76. Christopher Wren, A Study of North Appalachian Indian Pottery (Wilkes-Barre: Yordy, 1914), 9.
77. Marsh, 218.
78. Andrew Dickson White, The Warfare of Science (New York: Appleton, 1876), 150
79. White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, 2 vols. (New York: Appleton, 1896), 1:214, 226.
80. P. C. Varenne de Fenille, Mémoires sur l'administration forestière, et sur les qualités individuelles des bois indigènes ou qui sont acclimatés en France, 2 vols. (Bourg: Philipon, 1792), 1:187-88.
81. Pierre Etienne Herbin de Halle, Statistique générale et particulière de la France et de ses colonies, 7 vols. (Paris: Buisson, 1803), 7:419.
82. See for example "Bois," Encyclopédie du dix neuvième siècle, v5, ed. A. de Saint-Priest (Paris: Bureau de l'Encyclopédie du XIXe siècle, 1843), 576
83. François Alluaud aîné, Mémoire sur le reboisement et la conservation des bois et forêts de la France (Limoges: Chapoulaud, 1845), 20-21
84. Jean-Louis-Auguste Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, Considérations sur les boutures des arbres forestiers et sur le parti qu'on pourrait en tirer pour le reboisement (Paris: Bouchard-Huzard, 1846), 43-45, 49-50, 65-67n.
85. Louis-Ferdinand-Alfred Maury, Histoire des grandes forêts de la Gaule et de l'ancienne France (Paris: Leleux, 1850), 316-18.
86. John Evelyn, Sylva: Or, a Discourse of Forest Trees, 4e, v1 (1706; reprint, London: Doubleday, 1908), lxxxii. Palissy also cited, 118.
87. Robert Sattelmeyer, Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 75
88. Henry D. Thoreau, The Maine Woods, ed. Joseph J. Moldenhauer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972 [1864]), 154 (cp. 121-22, 228-30)
89. originally "Chesuncook," Atlantic Monthly 2 (August 1858): 316
90. Thoreau, "Extracts mostly upon Natural History," holograph notes, unsigned and undated, New York Public Library, Berg Collection, [71]
91. Sattelmeyer dated Thoreau's reading to c. 1859, but " Chesuncook" suggests he first read it at least a year earlier. Sattelmeyer, 240. I acknowledge a special debt of gratitude to Julianne Lutz Warren, who perused Thoreau's notes and identified for me that extract from Palissy that Thoreau copied down
92. Marsh, 129n
93. Harry Lyman Koopman, compiler, Catalogue of the Library of George Perkins Marsh (Burlington: Free Press, 1892), 450, 513.
94. Marsh, 218, 296-97.
95. Frederick Starr, Jr., "American Forests: Their Destruction and Preservation," in Report of the Commissioner for Agriculture for the Year 1865 (Washington, DC: G.P.O., 1866), 221
96. J. A. Warder, "Preservation of Timber Trees," Twenty-Seventh Annual Report of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture (Columbus: Nevins & Myers, 1873), 42-43
97. Warder repeated the quotation in "Forestry," in Eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture of the State of Missouri for the Year 1872 (Jefferson City: Regan & Carter, 1873), 466
98. Kansas State Horticultural Society, Kansas Horticultural Report, for the Year 1882, v12 (Kansas City: Ramsey, Millett & Hudson, 1883), 173
99. John Lamb, "Importance of the Forests to Agriculture," in American Forest Congress, Proceedings of the American Forest Congress (Washington, DC: American Forestry Association, 1905), 45-46
100. R. A. Long, "Forest Conservation," in Conference of Governors, Proceedings of a Conference of Governors (Washington, DC: G.P.O., 1908), 88.
101. See also B[irdsey] G[rant] Northrop, "Economic Tree-Planting," Eleventh Annual Report of the Secretary of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 1877-8 (Hartford: Case, Lockwood & Brainard, 1878), 276 (which Northrop reprinted several times elsewhere)
102. Eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture of the State of Missouri for 1872 (Jefferson City: Missouri State Board of Agriculture, 1873). Marsh's quotations of Palissy were also cited abroad
103. George Rolleston, "The Modifications of the External Aspects of Organic Nature produced by Man's Interferences," Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 49 (1879): 343-44
104. Alexander Frederic Corbett, The Climate and Resources of Upper India, and Suggestions for their Improvement (London: Allen, 1874), 46
105. John Croumbie Brown, Reboisement in France: or, Records of the Replanting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees with Trees, Herbage and Bush (London: Henry S. King, 1876), 78-79.
106. The debate over Palissy's originality has spawned a large literature. For some recent evaluations of Palissy and his critics
107. see H. R. Thompson, "The Geographical and Geological Observations of Bernard Palissy the Potter," Annals of Science 10 (1954): 161-65
108. Amico, 42; on the originality of Palissy's garden design: Gilles Polizzi, "L'intégration du modèle: le Poliphile et le discours du jardin dans La recepte véritable," in Bernard Palissy, ed. Lestringant 65-92
109. on the originality of his scientific observations: Keith Cameron, "L'Originalité de Bernard Palissy," in Bernard Palissy, ed. Lestringant, 133-43.
110. Henry Heller, The Conquest of Poverty: The Calvinist Revolt in Sixteenth Century France (Leiden: Brill, 1986)
111. see also Heller, Labour, Science, and Technology. My translation of the emblem motto.
112. Charles Estienne and Jean Liebault, L'agriculture, et maison rustique; plus un Bref recueil des chasses-et de la fauconnerie (Lyon: Jaques du Puys, 1583) (available online from the Bibliothèque nationale de France, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/ bpt6k52175n, accessed September 22, 2009). This was a translation and expansion of Estienne's Praedium rusticum of 1554.
113. Therese O'Malley, "Appropriation and Adaptation: Early Gardening Literature in America," The Huntington Library Quarterly 55 (1992): 408.
114. Olivier de Serres, Theatre d'agriculture et mesnage des champs (Paris: J. Métayer, 1600) (available online from the Bibliothèque nationale de France, http://gallica. bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k52175n, accessed September 22, 2009)
115. Henri Gourdin, Olivier de Serres: "Science, expérience, diligence" en agriculture au temps de Henri IV (Arles: Actes Sud, 2001)
116. Jean Boulaine, "Innovations agronomiques d'Olivier de Serres," Bulletin de l'Association d'étude sur l'humanisme, la réforme et la renaissance 50 (2000): 11-19
117. Danièle Duport, "La 'science' d'Olivier de Serres et la connaissance du 'naturel,'" Bulletin de l'Association d'étude sur l'humanisme, la réforme et la renaissance 50 (2000): 185-95
118. Denise le Dantec and Jean-Pierre le Dantec, Reading the French Garden: Story and History, tr. Jessica Levine (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), 64-74.
119. Heller, Labour, Science, and Technology, 83
120. Besson's designs were more fanciful than labor-saving, but they represented the application of imagination to improvement of agricultural production.
121. Duport, Le Jardin et la Nature, 56, 86-91
122. Franklin Hamilton Hazlehurst, Jacques Boyceau and the French Formal Garden (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1966)
123. Catharine Randall, Building Codes: The Aesthetics of Calvinism in Early Modern Europe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), chap. 3
124. Catharine Randall, "Structuring Protestant Scriptural Space in Sixteenth-Century Catholic France," The Sixteenth Century Journal 25(2) (1994): 341-52.
125. The literature on the rise of the English garden is vast for a summary of its moral and religious aspects and their influence in the United States, see Mark Stoll, "Milton in Yosemite: Paradise Lost and the National Parks Idea," Environmental History 13 (April 2008): 237-74. (Pubitemid 351816722)
126. Heller, Labour, Science, and Technology, 94, 158-60
127. Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, exp. ed., tr. Anthea Bell (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 547-51.
128. In Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in Northern New England, Richard W. Judd has argued that conservation ideals arose among the common people of New England. While this is true, the intellectual and political leadership of national conservationism did not come from northern but rather southwestern New England and from the upper more than the lower classes. Richard William Judd, Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in Northern New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997)
129. See also Richard W. Judd, "A 'Wonderful Order and Balance': Natural History and the Beginnings of Forest Conservation in America, 1730-1830," Environmental History 11 (January 2006): 8-36.
130. John Cumbler's Reasonable Use traced the environmental history of the nineteenth-century Connecticut Valley, and Steve Stoll's Larding the Lean Earth tenuously connected George Perkins Marsh and the agricultural improvement movement. John T. Cumbler, Reasonable Use: The People, the Environment, and the State, New England, 1790-1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
131. Steven Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth: Soil and Society in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002). For other significant interpretations of New Englanders' attitudes toward the changing environment
132. see William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983)
133. Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989)
134. Tamara Plakins Thornton, Cultivating Gentlemen: The Meaning of Country Life among the Boston Elite, 1785-1860 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). None of these authors traced the deep history of conservationism to its source in a regional Puritan communal ethic or its embodiment in an idealized New England village.
135. David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 13-206.
136. Jared Eliot, Essays upon field husbandry in New England, and other papers, 1748-1762, eds. Harry J. Carman and Rexford G. Tugwell (New York, Columbia University Press, 1934), 138
137. "An Essay on the Invention, or Art of making very good if not the best Iron, from Black Sea Sand," Eliot, 165, with frequent similar statements throughout.
138. Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God: A sermon preached at Enfield, July 8th 1741 (Edinburgh: Lumisden and Robertson, 1745), 15.
139. Chauncey Whittelsey, A sermon preach'd at New-Haven on the Sabbath preceeding the Publick Commencement, Sept. 9th, anno Dom, 1744. Wherein is considered the true Notion of a Faithful Improvement of our Talents, and the Wisdom of being Early & in Earnest therein (New London: T. Green, 1744), 5.
140. Edwards, "The Duty of Charity to the Poor, explained and enforced," in Practical Sermons, 355.
141. John Calvin, Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis, v1, tr. John King (Edinburgh, Calvin Translation Society, 1847), 125. This translation is available in many editions and online.
142. Edwards again provides an excellent example in his sermon "The preciousness of Time," in Practical Sermons, never before published (Edinburgh: Gray, 1788), 289.
143. Brian Donahue, The Great Meadow: Farmers and the Land in Colonial Concord (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004).
144. Charles F. Carroll, The Timber Economy of Puritan New England (Providence: Brown University Press, 1973)
145. Lillian M. Willson, Forest Conservation in Colonial Times (St. Paul: Forest Products History Foundation, 1948), 12-17.
146. On the self and Puritan society, the classic work is Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975).
147. Gretchen Townsend Buggeln, Temples of Grace: The Material Transformation of Connecticut's Churches, 1790-1840 (Hanover: University Press of New England, 2003), x-xi
148. Dale S. Kuehne, Massachusetts Congregationalist Political Thought 1760-1790: The Design of Heaven (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996)
149. Jonathan D. Sassi, A Republic of Righteousness: The Public Christianity of the Post-Revolutionary New England Clergy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
150. Donald M. Scott, From Office to Profession: The New England Ministry, 1750-1850 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978). The first revivals of both the First and Second Great Awakenings broke out in the Connecticut Valley.
151. Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), 2:78.
152. David D. Brodeur, "Evolution of the NewEngland Town Common: 1630-1966," The Professional Geographer 19 (November 1967): 313-18
153. Joseph S. Wood, "'Build, Therefore, Your Own World': The New England Village as Settlement Ideal," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81 (March 1991): 32-50
154. Wood, "The New England Village as an American Vernacular Form," Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 2 (1986): 54-63
155. John Brinckerhoff Jackson, American Space: The Centennial Years, 1865-1876 (New York: Norton, 1972), 99-112
156. Donahue, 221-34.
157. Eliot, Give Cesar his due. Or, The obligation that subjects are under to their civil rulers, as shewed in a sermon preach'd before the General Assembly of the colony of Connecticut at Hartford, May the 11th, 1738 (New London: T. Green, 1738)
158. Christopher Grasso, "The Experimental Philosophy of Farming: Jared Eliot and the Cultivation of Connecticut," William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 50 (July 1993): 524
159. see also Grasso, A Speaking Aristocracy: Transforming Public Discourse in Eighteenth-Century Connecticut (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 190-229.
160. See, for example, Steven Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth
161. Percy W. Bidwell, "The Agricultural Revolution in New England," American Historical Review 26 (July 1921): 683-702.
162. Brett H. Smith, "Reversing the Curse: Agricultural Millennialism at the Illinois Industrial University," Church History 73 (2004): 759-91.
163. Coy F. Cross, Justin Smith Morrill: Father of the Land-Grant Colleges (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1999).
164. Roger L. Williams, The Origins of Federal Support for Higher Education: George W. Atherton and the Land-Grant College Movement (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991), 57
165. James Powell Weeks, "George Washington Atherton and the Creation of the Hatch Act," Pennsylvania History 56 (October 1989): 299-317.
166. F. H. King, Farmers of Forty Centuries or, Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea, and Japan (Madison: Mrs. F. H. King, 1911)
167. Michael Sligh and Thomas Cierpka, "Organic Values," in Organic Farming: An International History, ed. William Lockeretz (Wallingford: CABI, 2007), 31-32
168. Deborah H. Stinner, "The Science of Organic Farming," in Lockeretz, 54-55. The founder of Anglophone organic agriculture, Sir Albert Howard, said in his own foundational text that King's book "should be prescribed as a textbook in every agricultural school and college in the world." Howard and Yeshwant D. Wad, The Waste Products of Agriculture: Their Utilization as Humus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931), 12. King's father was born in the Connecticut Valley his mother was a native of Nova Scotia, a descendant of New England Loyalists. I have been unable to discover his religious affiliation.
169. L. H. Bailey, The Holy Earth (New York: Scribner's, 1916), 14.
170. On Bailey, see Andrew Denny Rodgers III, Liberty Hyde Bailey: A Story of American Plant Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949)
171. Ben A. Minteer, The Landscape of Reform: Civic Pragmatism and Environmental thought in America (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006, 17-50
172. Kevin C. Armitage, "'The Science-Sprit in a Democracy': Liberty Hyde Bailey, Nature Study, and the Democratic Impulse of Progressive Conservation," in Natural Protest: Essays on the History of American Environmentalism, eds. Michael Egan and Jeff Crane (New York: Routledge, 2009), 89-116.
173. Caroline Crane Marsh, The Life and Letters of George Perkins Marsh, 2 vols. (New York: Scribner, 1888), 1:29.
174. On the New England origins of Man and Nature, see Lowenthal, 275-78.
175. Marsh, Man and Nature, 8, 35.
176. T. Gregory Garvey, "The Civic Intent of George Perkins Marsh's Anthrocentric Environmentalism," New England Quarterly 82(1) (March 2009): 80-111.
177. Caroline Crane Marsh, quoted in Lowenthal, 377. Compare Caroline Crane Marsh, 1:79.
178. John A. Haddock, "Dr. Franklin B. Hough," in The Growth of a Century: as illustrated in the History of Jefferson County, New York, from 1793 to 1894 (Philadelphia: Shermon, 1894), 324-26
179. Harold K. Steen, "The Beginning of the National Forest System," in American Forests: Nature, Culture, and Politics, ed. Char Miller (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997), 51-53.
180. John C. Hollister, Historical Record of the Class of 1840, Yale College (New Haven: Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor, 1897), 21-23
181. Char Miller, "Amateur Hour: Nathaniel H. Egleston and Professional Forestry in Post-Civil War America," Forest History Today (Spring/Fall 2005): 20-26.
182. On Hough and Egleston, see also Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History, centennial ed. (Durham: Forest History Society, 2004), 9-21.
183. Quotation, Nathaniel Hillyer Egleston, Villages and Village Life: With Hints for their Improvement (New York: Harper, 1878), 12.
184. George McLean Milne, Connecticut Woodlands: A Century's Story of the Connecticut Forest and Park Association ([Rockall]: The Association, 1995), 5-6, 8, 9, 10.
185. See also Russell L. Brenneman, "Rescuing Connecticut: A Story of Land-Saving Actions," in Twentieth-Century New England Land Conservation: A Heritage of Civic Engagement, ed. Charles H. W. Foster (Petersham: Harvard Forest, 2009), 259-300. Brenneman dates Connecticut's first state forest to 1903 and only calls it the first state forest in New England. Brenneman, 267.
186. Pinchot had first inclined toward a career in church work. He served as deacon for the Yale Class of '89, involved himself in the campus Young Men's Christian Association, and entertained the possibility of missionary work. Amos Enos House, Nomination Form, National Park Service, National Register Information System no. 75001935, http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NRHP/Text/ 75001935.pdf (accessed January 15, 2010)
187. Miller, Gifford Pinchot, 69-70. Pinchot was raised Presbyterian.
188. Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1910), 5, 8, 133.
189. Pinchot, "The Problem," in The Church and Country Life, ed. Paul L. Vogt (New York: Mission Education Movement of the United States and Canada, 1916), 7, 10-11. Pinchot may have meant simply to allude to the words of the Social Gospel movement, but he also in so many words stated the goals of the Puritan founders of New England.
190. "Henry Solon Graves, 1871-1951," Yale Forest School News 39(2) (1951): 22-24. I am grateful to Carla Heister, librarian, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, for this reference. Graves's father graduated from Amherst College, his mother was from Mansfield, Massachusetts
191. Henry D. Thoreau, The Maine Woods, ed. Joseph J. Moldenhauer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972 [1864]), 155-56
192. originally "Chesuncook," Atlantic Monthly 2 (August 1858): 316, 317.
193. Lydia Huntley Sigourney, "Fallen Forests," Scenes in My Native Land (Boston: Munroe, 1845), 117-19.
194. Sigourney was raised Congregationalist and became an Episcopalian after her marriage. Gordon S. Haight, Mrs. Sigourney: The Sweet Singer of Hartford (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930), 135, 149.
195. New England Congregational women wrote about nature in a decidedly different vein, with much less nostalgia for the Puritan village. The popular New England local-color literary movement (all women) focused on women's natural world of gardens, herbs, birds, and insects, took a jaundiced view of Calvinism and the patriarchal village social order, and neglected pretty much entirely the issues of agriculture, forestry, and public parks. Many others became birdwatchers and ornithologists. For her part, pioneering scientist Ellen Swallow's interest in science and ecology centered around issues of the women's sphere. This is not however to deny that many New England women enthusiastically supported parks and national forests. Still, it is curious that the village ideal that made men idealistic seems to have made women cynical.
196. Frederick Law Olmsted, "The Justifying Value of a Public Park," in Public Parks (Brookline: n.p., 1902), 89, 97
197. Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and The People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), 26.
198. "Park History," Bushnell Park Foundation, http://www. bushnellpark.org/Content/ Park-History.asp (accessed April 7, 2010).
199. Olmsted, quoted in Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Scribner, 1999), 293.
200. Jackson, 111. Kent's wife was also a Connecticut native
201. Elizabeth T. Kent, William Kent, Independent: A Biography (n.p., 1950), 7-9, 51-70
202. Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 4e (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 175.
203. Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3e, rev. & enl. (New York: Knopf, 1970), 12-14, 20, 287; quotation, 134. Mather's father switched to the Episcopal Church when he moved to New York City. Mather was named for an Episcopal clergyman in New York, but I have no information on the denomination of his childhood in California. Both Mather and his father returned to Connecticut from California and were buried there.
204. "Frank A.Waugh: A Biographical Sketch," in the programfor a Dinner in Observance of the Retirement of Dr. Frank A. Waugh from Active Teaching, Massachusetts State College, June 9, 1939
205. "Dr. Frank A. Waugh, State College Faculty Member 40 Years, Dies," unidentified newspaper clipping, March 24, 1943, both in Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
206. Linda Flint McClelland, Building the National Parks: Historic Landscape Design and Construction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 81-85. Thanks to Danielle Kovacs, curator of Collections, Special Collections & University Archives, and her staff at theW. E. B.DuBois Library, UniversityofMassachusetts, for assistance with Waugh's background. (Wirth's ancestry was Swiss Reformed.)
207. Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, commemorative ed. (1947 Washington, DC: Island Press, 1998), 319-26
208. Miller, Gifford Pinchot, 154-55.
209. Neil Maher, Nature's New Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Roots of the American Environmental Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 196-208.
210. Eileen McGurty, Transforming Environmentalism: Warren County, PCBs, and the Origins of Environmental Justice (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 95-98. Bailey was an example of the trend away from the New England village. He was raised on a farm in Michigan and resisted the idea that famers should live in communities. A major factor is a takeover of environmental leadership by Congregationalists' Calvinist cousins, the Presbyterians, in whose culture each of these four figures and many more were raised.
211. See Mark Stoll, "Rachel Carson: The Presbyterian Genesis of a Nature Writer," in Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Religion, 2nd rev. and much exp. ed., ed. Nicolaas Rupke (New York: Peter Lang, 2009)
212. Stoll, "The Presbyterian Impact on American Environmentalism," paper delivered at the meeting of the American Society for Environmental History, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, March 3, 2007. The divide over the controversial Hetch Hetchy Dam in Yosemite National Park between Muir on one side and Pinchot and Kent on the other exemplifies the divergence of nature preservation and social goals.