Transforming environmentalism: Warren county, PCBS, and the origins of environmental justice

Transforming Environmentalism: Warren County, PCBS, and the Origins of Environmental Justice

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-204

  McGurty, Eileen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

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EID: 84899218426     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (316)

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2. Dollie Burwell, "Reminiscences from Warren County, North Carolina," in Proceedings of the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, ed. Charles Lee (New York: Commission for Racial Justice, 1991), 126.
3. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993), 246.
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Equity: Reducing Risks for All Communities, vol. 1, Workgroup Report to the Administrator, EPA 230-R-92-008 (Washington, DC: General Printing Office, 1992), 6.
5. Aldon Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984), ix.
6. Sydney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social movements, collective action and politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 3-4.
7. Ken Geiser and Gerry Waneck, "PCBs and Warren County," Science for the People 15 (1983): 13-17.
8. Robert Bullard, ed., Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1994), 43-52.
9. Robert Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 5.
10. Luke Cole and Sheila Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
11. Dorceta Taylor, "The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm: Injustice Framing and the Social Construction of Environmental Discourses," American Behavioral Scientist 43, no. 4 (January 2000): 508-80.
12. Sylvia Noble Tesh, Uncertain Hazards: Environmental Activists and Scientific Proof (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 100-119.
13. For examples, see Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979);
14. Andrew Hurley, Environmental Inequalities: Race, Class and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995
15. Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
16. James Noel Smith, ed., Environmental Quality and Social Justice in Urban America (Washington, DC: Conservation Foundation, 1974).
17. Clem L. Zinger, Environmental Volunteers in America (Washington, DC: National Center for Voluntary Action, 1973), 17.
18. In Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992).
19. Thomas Bradley, "Minorities and Conservation," Sierra Club Bulletin, April 1972, 21.
20. Don Combs, "The Club Looks at Itself," Sierra Club Bulletin, July/August 1972, 35-39.
21. "The Environmental Cause Is No Cop-out for the Affluent," Audubon, November 1971, 35-39.
22. Time, 3 August 1970, 42.
23. Daniel Zwerdling, "Poverty and Pollution," The Progressive, April 1971, 25-29;
24. "Where Pollution Control Is Slowing Industrial Growth," U.S. News and World Report, 23 April 1971, 47-50;
25. Henry Wallack, "Paying for the Clean-up," Newsweek, 26 January 1970, 72.
26. Riley E. Dunlap, "Trends in Public Opinion toward Environmental Issues: 1965-1990," Society and Natural Resources 4 (1991): 285-312.
27. John Mc-Carthy and Mayer N. Zald, eds., Social Movements in an Organizational Society (Oxford: Transaction Press, 1987).
28. Alberto Melucci, "New Social Movements: A Theoretical Approach," Social Science Information 19 (1980): 199-226;
29. Claus Offe, "New Social Movements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics," Social Research 52 (1985): 817-65.
30. Bert Klandermans and Sidney Tarrow, "Mobilization into Social Movements: Synthesizing European and American Approaches," in Bert Klandermans, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Sidney Tarrow, eds., From Structure to Action: Comparing Social Movement Research across Cultures, International Social Movement Research 1 (1988), 1-38.
31. Craig Calhoun, "New Social Movements in the Early Nineteenth Century," Social Science History 17 (1993): 385-427.
32. Sidney Tarrow, Struggle, Politics and Reform: Collective Action, Social Movements and Cycles of Protest (Ithaca: Cornell University, Western Society Papers, 1989);
33. Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
34. Tarrow, Power in Movement.
35. Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990);
36. Alain Touraine, The Return of the Actor: Social Theory in Postindustrial Society (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984).
37. Tarrow, Power in Movement.
38. John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd ed. (New York: Longham Press, 2003), 3.
39. Alan Scott, Ideology and Social Movements (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990).
40. David Nabuib Pellow, Garbage Wars: The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Chicago (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 164.
41. Laura Pulido, Environmental and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996), 24-30.
42. Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring, 264.
43. Tarrow, Power in Movement, 16.
44. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (New York: Harper, 1974), 21.
45. Taylor, "Environmental Justice Paradigm," 516.
46. David Schlosberg, Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism: The Challenge of Difference for Environmentalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 111.
47. All the data is taken from the Council on Environmental Quality, Toxic Substances (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1971).
48. Linda Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature (New York: Henry Holt, 1997).
49. Anthony Giddens, Runaway World: How Globalization Is Reshaping Our Lives (London: Routledge, 2000);
50. Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Toward a New Modernity (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992).
51. Deborah Lupton, Risk (New York: Routledge, 1999).
52. Lupton, Risk, 31.
53. Sylvia Noble Tesh, Uncertain Hazards: Environmental Activists and Scientific Proof (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 2000), 132-37.
54. Iain Wilkinson, Anxiety in a Risk Society (London: Routledge, 2001).
55. Federal Register 43 (17 February 1978), 7150-64.
56. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Management of PCBs in the United States (Washington, DC: EPA, 30 January 1997).
57. CEQ, Toxic Substances, v.
58. John E. Blodgett, ed., Legislative History of the Toxic Substances Control Act: Together with a Section-by-Section Index (Washington, DC: Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division of Library of Congress, December 1976), 4.
59. Joel Reynolds, The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976: An Introduction, Background and Analysis (New York: Columbia Law School, 1977), 23.
60. Jane E. Brody, "Vinyl Chloride Exposure Limit Is Opposed by Industry," New York Times, 26 June 1974, 30.
61. Reynolds, The Toxic Substances Control Act, 32.
62. John O'Connor, "TV: 'The Way of Cancer,'" New York Times, 15 October 1975, 87.
63. Reynolds, The Toxic Substances Control Act, 41.
64. For a critique of risk assessment, see Tesh, Uncertain Hazards, 66-80.
65. Morton Mintz, "Industrial Chemical PCB Is Linked to Liver Cancer," Washington Post, 13 September 1976, A1, A6.
66. Richard Severno, "E.P.A. Aide Warns of Toxic Leakage," New York Times, 20 November 1975, 20.
67. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hudson River PCBs Site, New York, Record of Decision (Washington, DC: EPA, February 2002).
68. Blodgett, Legislative History, 133.
69. James R. Allen and D. A. Barsotti, "The Effects of Transplacental and Mammary Movement of PCBs on Infant Rhesus Monkeys, Toxicology 6 (Nov.- Dec. 1976): 331-40.
70. General Accounting Office, Toxic Substances: EPA's Chemical Testing Program Has Made Little Progress (Washington, DC: GAO, 25 April 1990).
71. General Accounting Office, Toxic Substances: Effectiveness of Unreasonable Risk Standard Unclear (Washington, DC: GAO, 20 July 1990).
72. Andrew Hanan, "Pushing the Environmental Regulatory Focus a Step Back: Controlling the Introduction of New Chemicals under the Toxic Substances Control," American Journal of Law and Medicine 18 (1992).
73. See Federal Register, 1978.
74. General Accounting Office, EPA Slow in Controlling PCBs (Washington, DC: GAO, December 1981).
75. U.S. EPA, Office of Pollution Presentation and Toxics, PCB Question and Answer Manual: An EPA TSCA Assistance Document (Washington, DC: EPA, 1994).
76. U.S. Senate, TSCA Oversight Hearings before the Subcommittee on Environmental Pollution of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, 95th Congress, 2nd session (20-21 July 1978), 111.
77. Inventory Update Rule (IUR), on 12 June 1986 in the Federal Register 51:21438.
78. U.S. Senate, Oversight Hearings, 18.
79. National Research Council, Toxicity Testing: Strategies to Determine Needs and Priorities (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), 1.
80. General Accounting Office, Toxic Substances: Status of EPA's Review of Chemicals under the Chemical Testing Program (Washington, DC: GAO, October 1991).
81. Hanan, "Pushing the Environmental Regulatory Focus." 36.
82. General Accounting Office, Toxic Substances Control Act: Preliminary Observations on Legislative Changes to Make TSCA More Effective (Washington, DC: GAO, July 1994).
83. Edward J. Woodhouse, "External Influences on Productivity: EPA's Implementation of TSCA," Policy Studies Review 4 (February 1985): 497-503.
84. Office of Technology Assessment, The Information Content of Premanufacture Notices (Washington, DC: OTA, April 1983).
85. U.S. Senate, Oversight Hearings, 21.
86. Martin V. Melosi, Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 351-55.
87. Eileen M. McGurty, "City Renaissance on a Garbage Heap: Newark, NJ, and Solid Waste Planning," Journal of Planning History 2, no. 4 (November 2003).
88. Melosi, Sanitary City.
89. U.S. EPA, Report to Congress: Disposal of Hazardous Wastes (Washington, DC: EPA, 1973), 26-30.
90. General Accounting Office, How to Dispose of Hazardous Waste: A Serious Question that Needs to be Resolved (Washington, DC: GAO, December 1978), 1.
91. General Accounting Office, Statement of Eleanor Chemlimsy, Director, Program Evaluation and Methodology Division, before the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources Subcommittee, Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, on the Condition of Information on Hazardous Waste, 25 September 1986, 4-11.
92. General Accounting Office, Hazardous Waste Management Programs Will Not Be Effective: Greater Efforts Are Needed (Washington, DC: GAO, 23 January 1979), 14-15.
93. Samuel Epstein, Lester Brown, and Carl Pope, Hazardous Wastes in America (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1982), 228.
94. General Accounting Office, Hazardous Wastes: New Approach Needed to Manage the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (Washington, DC: GAO, July 1988), 14.
95. GAO, Hazardous Waste Management Programs, 5.
96. Andrew Szasz, Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 35.
97. General Accounting Office, Hazardous Waste: Groundwater Conditions at Many Land Disposal Facilities Remain Uncertain (Washington, DC: GAO, February 1988).
98. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The Prevalence of Subsurface Migration of Hazardous Chemical Substances at Selected Industrial Waste Land Disposal Sites (Washington, DC: EPA, October, 1977).
99. David Anderson, K. W. Brown, and Jan Green, "Effect of Organic Fluids on the Permeability of Clay Soil Liners," in U.S. EPA, Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste (Cincinnati: EPA, March 1982).
100. Peter Montague, "Four Secure Landfills in New Jersey-A Study of the State of the Art in Shallow Burial Waste Disposal Technology," (Princeton, NJ: Department of Civil Engineering and Center for Energy and Environmental Studies, School of Engineering/Applied Science, Princeton University, 1 February 1981).
101. William Sanjour, "Statement of William Sanjour, Chief, Hazardous Waste Implementation Branch, U.S. EPA, before the Subcommittee on Natural Resources, Agriculture Research and Environment Committee on Science and Technology, House of Representatives," 30 November 1982, http://pwp.lincs.net/sanjour/default.htm (accessed 3 October 2005).
102. General Accounting Office, Assessment of EPA's Hazardous Waste Enforcement Strategy (Washington, DC: GAO, September 1985).
103. General Accounting Office, Hazardous Wastes: Many Enforcement Actions Do Not Meet EPA Standards (Washington, DC: GAO, June 1988).
104. Mazmanian and Morell, Beyond Superfailure, 106
105. General Accounting Office, Hazardous Waste: Progress under the Corrective Action Program Is Limited (Washington, DC: GAO, October 1997), 7.
106. Szasz, Ecopopulism.
107. See Szasz, Ecopopulism.
108. Szasz, Ecopopulism; Lois Marie Gibbs and Murray Levine, Love Canal: My Story (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982);
109. and Allan Mazur, A Hazardous Inquiry: The Rashomon Effect at Love Canal (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).
110. Tesh, Uncertain Hazards, 21-23.
111. The CBS segment was six and a half minutes, and the NBC one was three minutes and ten seconds. Vanderbilt Television News Archive (Nashville, TN).
112. Sheila Rule, "Fire Breaks Out amid Chemicals at Site in Jersey," New York Times, 22 April 1980, B3.
113. Harold C. Barnett, Toxic Debts and the Superfund Dilemma (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 69.
114. John M. Hyson, "'Fairness' and Joint and Several Liability in Government Cost Recovery Actions under CERCLA," Harvard Environmental Law Review 21 (1997): 152-53.
115. George J. Mitchell, "Not a Super Fund," New York Times, 8 December 1980, A27.
116. Mazmanian and Morell, Beyond Superfailure, 27.
117. R. McGreggor Cawley, Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993).
118. Quoted in Richard N. L. Andrews, "Deregulation: The Failure at EPA," in Environmental Policy in the 1980s: Reagan's New Agenda, ed. Norman J. Vig and Michael E. Kraft (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1984), 163.
119. Quoted in Barnett, Toxic Debts, 71.
120. Office on Technology Assessment, Technologies and Management Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control (Washington, DC: OTA, 1983), 63.
121. General Accounting Office, Superfund: Missed Statutory Deadlines Slow Progress in Environmental Programs (Washington, DC: GAO, November 1988), 8.
122. Barnett, Toxic Debts, 81.
123. Phillip Shabecoff, "New Environmental Chief Vows to Lift Regulatory 'Overburden,'" New York Times, 21 June 1981, 36.
124. Szasz, Ecopopulism, 123-30.
125. Barnett, Toxic Debts, 86.
126. James J. Florio, "Congress as Reluctant Regulator: Hazardous Waste Policy in the 1980s," Yale Journal of Regulation 3 (1986): 351-82.
127. Congressional Budget Office, Analyzing the Duration of Cleanup at Sites on Superfund's National Priorities List (Washington, DC: CBO, March 1994), 8.
128. Roadside PCB Spill (NCD 980602163) was officially delisted on 7 March 1986, one of the first seven sites delisted from the Final NPL. Federal Register 51 (45): 7934-35.
129. See http://cfpub.epa.gov/supercpad/ cursites/csitinfo.cfm?id=0403068.
130. Environmental Protection Agency, Public Hearing before the Environmental Protection Agency on the Matter of the Application to Dispose of Soil Contaminated with PCBs at a Selected Site in Warren County, North Carolina, 4 January 1979.
131. Charles White in EPA, Public Hearing, 149.
132. Herbert Hyde, Memorandum to Governor James B. Hunt, 23 January 1979, RC-CCPS File 697, State of North Carolina Archives, Raleigh, North Carolina.
133. North Carolina, Department of Crime Control and Public Safety, Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Removal and Disposal of Soils Contaminated with PCBs along Highway Shoulders in North Carolina (Raleigh, NC, 13 November 1980), 9.
134. Kelly Alley, Charles Faupel, and Connor Bailey, "The Historical Transformation of a Grassroots Environmental Group," Human Organization 54, no. 4 (1995);
135. Connor Bailey, Charles Faupel, and James H. Gundlach, "Environmental Politics in Alabama's Blackbelt," in Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots, ed. Robert D. Bullard (Boston: South End Press, 1993).
136. Susan Hunter and Kevin M. Leyden, "Beyond NIMBY: Explaining Opposition to Hazardous Waste Facilities," Policy Studies Journal 23, no. 4 (1995): 601ff.
137. Paul Slovic, "Perceptions of Risk," Science 236 (1987): 280-85.
138. Kent E. Portney, Siting Hazardous Waste Treatment Facilities: The NIMBY Syndrome (New York: Auburn House, 1991).
139. David Snow and R. Benford, "Ideology, Frame Resonance and Participant Mobilization," International Social Movement Research 1 (1988): 197-217;
140. David Snow and R. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 135-55.
141. Sydney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 16.
142. Snow and Benford, "Master Frames." Giovanna DiChiro, "Nature as Community: The Convergence of Environmental and Social Justice," in Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995).
143. Robert Austin in EPA, Public Hearing, 113.
144. William Brauer in EPA, Public Hearing, 132.
145. Stanton Miller, "The PCB Imbroglio," Environmental Science Technology 17, no. 1 (1983): 11-14;
146. Julian Josephson, "Phasing Out PCBs: Whatever the Outcome of the Debate over Their Health Effects, They Must Go," Environmental Science Technology 18, no. 2 (1984): 43-44;
147. "Polychlorinated Biphenyls: How Do They Affect Human Health?" Health and Environment Digest, August 1988;
148. Kristine Napier, "PCBs: The Mythical Monsters," ACSH News and Views, March/April 1988, 3-4;
149. "PCB Cancer Reassessment Completed," IEHR Bulletin, October 1991.
150. Environmental Protection Agency, "PCB Marking and Disposal Regulations Final Action Support Document," Federal Register 43:7150, 17 February 1978.
151. Andres Szasz, Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
152. California Waste Management Board,Political Difficulties Facing Waste-to-Energy Conversion Plant Siting 1984.
153. Martin V. Melosi, The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 271-73.
154. State of North Carolina, Department of Crime Control and Public Safety, Addendum to Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Removal and Disposal of Soils Contaminated with PCBs along Highway Shoulders in North Carolina (Raleigh, NC, February 1981).
155. EPA, Public Hearing, 66.
156. Warren County v. State of North Carolina, 79 560 Civ 5, 28 (Easter District, 25 November 1981).
157. "Dump Decision Delayed," Warren Record, 25 January 1979;
158. Deborah Ferruccio, Letter to Editor, Warren Record, 25 January 1979.
159. Sylvia D. Bumgardner in EPA, Public Hearing, 123-24.
160. James B. Hunt, "Open Letter to the Citizens of Warren County," Warren Record, 20 October 1982.
161. Warren County Economic Development Commission, "Warren County Fact Sheets," (Warrenton, NC, 1991).
162. Paul Luebke, Tar Heal Politics: Myths and Realities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 58-70.
163. EPA, Public Hearing, 104-5.
164. Gregory Newsome, Letter to John White, 5 January 1979, North Carolina Division of Waste Management, Solid Waste File Room, Raleigh, NC.
165. Linda Carter in EPA, Public Hearing, 142.
166. CCPS, Final EIS; Tom Oliver, "Warren Wants Soul City Land to Bring Jobs," Durham Herald, 29 December 1982.
167. Helen Howard, "Opponents Focus on Discrepancies," Warren Record, 4 52.
168. White in EPA, Public Hearing, 10-11.
169. Bauer in EPA, Public Hearing, 80.
170. EPA, Public Hearing, 181.
171. EPA, Public Hearing, 140.
172. Sylvia Day Bumgardner, Letter to Editor, Warren Record, 4 January 1979, 2.
173. Durham Herald, 22 December 1978, as quoted in EPA, Public Hearing, 215.
174. Warren County v. State.
175. 63. Robert W. Lake, "Rethinking NIMBY," Journal of the American Planning Association 59, no. 1 (Winter 1993): 87-93.
176. Andrew Szasz, Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
177. Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 157-59.
178. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 135-50.
179. McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 89-98.
180. Steven R. Weisman, "Reagan Says Blacks Were Hurt by Works of the Great Society," New York Times, 16 September 1982, A1.
181. As quoted in Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1982 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1984), 195.
182. John Robinson, "Blacks in N.C. Muster Forces to Shield Civil Rights," Raleigh News and Observer, 31 January 1982, 251.
183. Robert C. Mitchell, Angela G. Mertig, and Riley E. Dunlap, "Twenty Years of Environmental Mobilization: Trends among National Environmental Organizations," Society and Natural Resources 4 (1991): 219-34.
184. Riley E. Dunlap, "Trends in Public Opinion toward Environmental Issues: 1965-1990," Society and Natural Resources 4 (1991): 285-312.
185. United States Commission on Civil Rights, The Voting Rights Act: Unfulfilled Goals (Washington, DC: Commission, 1981), 14.
186. Richard L. Engstrom, "Black Politics and the Voting Rights Act, 1965-1982," in Contemporary Southern Politics, ed. James F. Lea (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).
187. Commission, Voting Rights Act, 19-21.
188. Steven V. Roberts, "Voting Law Compromise Clears Senate Panel," New York Times, 5 May 1982, A23.
189. Sheila Rule, "Blacks and Reagan's Goal on State's Rights, New York Times, 11 March 1981, B20.
190. Reginald Stuart, "March Is Begun in Alabama to Back Voting Rights Law," New York Times, 7 February 1982, 24.
191. Dianne M. Pinderhughes, "Black Interest Groups and the 1982 Extension of the Voting Rights Act," in Huey L. Perry and Wayne Parent, eds. Blacks and the American Political System (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), 218.
192. Andrea L. Wollock, Reapportionment: Law and Technology (Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures, 1980).
193. United States Department of Justice, Division of Civil Rights, Voting Rights Section, File No. 82-2368.
194. Ulrich Beck, Ecological Politics in the Age of Risk (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).
195. Mary Douglas and Aaron Wildavsky, Risk and Culture: An Essay in the Selection and Interpretation of Technological and Environmental Dangers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
196. For example, Laura Westra and Bill E. Lawson, eds., Faces of Environmental Racism: Confronting Issues of Global Justice, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001), xviii.
197. United Church of Christ Commission on Racial Justice, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States (New York: Commission, 1987).
198. "Minister to Leave Jail, Preach against Dump," Raleigh News and Observer, 19 September 1982, 24A.
199. Richard Hart, "PCBs Change 'Leap of Faith' to Full Battle," Raleigh News and Observer, 3 October 1982, 28A.
200. Richard Hart, "39 Arrested in Third Day of PCB Landfill Protests," Raleigh News and Observer, 18 September 1982, 1A-8A.
201. Lennox S. Hinds, Illusions of Justice: Human Rights Violations in the United States (Iowa City: University of Iowa, School of Social Work, 1978);
202. "Chavis Battling Reagan Policies," Raleigh News and Observer, 4 Apri11982.
203. Richard Hart, "39 Arrested." 36.
204. Tarrow, Power in Movement, 109.
205. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion.
206. North Carolina Department of Crime Control and Public Safety, Special Incident Report: PCB Incident in Warren County, 17 November 1982.
207. Aldon Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984).
208. Marguerite Ross Barnett, "The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power," in The New Black Politics: The Search for Political Power, ed. Michael B. Preston, Lenneal J. Henderson, and Paul Puryear (New York: Longman Press, 1982).
209. General Accounting Office, Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills and Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communities (Washington, DC: GAO, 1 June 1983);
210. United Church of Christ, Commission on Racial Justic, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States (New York: UCC, 1987).
211. Sylvia Noble Tesh, Uncertain Hazards: Environmental Activists and Scientific Proof (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 135-37.
212. Tarrow, Power in Movement, 108.
213. NC Department of Crime Control, Special Incident Report.
214. Executive Order 12898, "Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations" (11 February 1994).
215. "Environmental Justice," New York Times, 11 February 1994, A34.
216. James P. Lester, David W. Allen, and Kelly M. Hill, Environmental Injustices in the United States: Myths and Realities (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001).
217. Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 159.
218. Laura Pulido, "Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California," Annals of Association of American Geographers 9, no. 1 (2000): 12-40.
219. Andrew Szasz and Michael Meuser, "Environmental Inequalities: Literature Review and Proposals for New Directions in Research and Theory," Current Sociology 45, no. 3 (July 1997): 99-120.
220. General Accounting Office, Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills and Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communities (Washington, DC: GAO, 1 June 1983);
221. United Church of Christ, Commission on Racial Justice, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States (New York: UCC, 1987).
222. Robert Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 22.
223. Charles Lee, ed., Proceedings: The First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit (New York: United Church of Christ, 1991), 75.
224. GAO, Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills, 3.
225. Feng Liu, Environmental Justice Analysis: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, 2001).
226. UCC, Toxic Wastes and Race, 15.
227. Yale Rabin, "Expulsive Zoning: The Inequitable Legacy of Euclid," in Zoning and the American Dream 101
228. Charles M. Haar and Jerold S. Kayend, reprinted in Clifford Rechtschaffen and Eileen Gauna, Environmental Justice: Law, Policy, and Regulation (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2003), 27-28.
229. Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992), 36.
230. Richard J. Lazarus, "Environmental Racism! That's What It Is," University of Illinois Law Review (2000): 255-74.
231. Laura Pulido, "A Critical Review of the Methodology of Environmental Racism Research," Antipode 28, no. 2 (1996): 145.
232. Pulido, "Rethinking Environmental Racism," 1.
233. Paul Mohai, "Environmental Justice or Analytic Justice? Reexamining Historical Hazardous Waste Landfill Siting Patterns in Metropolitan Texas," Social Science Quarterly 77, no. 3 (September 1996): 500-507.
234. UCC, Toxic Wastes and Race, x.
235. Stephen J. Gould, Ever Since Darwin (1977), 231-36;
236. Newton G. Osborne and Marvin D. Feit, "The Use of Race in Medical Research," Journal of the American Medical Association 267 (8 January 1992): 275-79.
237. Rae Zimmerman, "Issues of Classification in Environmental Equity: How We Manage Is How We Measure," Fordham Urban Law Journal 21, no. 3 (1994): 633-69.
238. see Liu, Environmental Justice Analysis, 52-60.
239. Zimmerman, "Issues of Classification," 650.
240. D. J. Lober, "Resolving the Siting Impasse: Modeling Social and Environmental Locational Criteria with a Geographic Information System," Journal of the American Planning Association 61, no. 4 (1995): 482-95;
241. J. Mennis, "Using Geographic Information Systems to Create and Analyze Statistical Surfaces of Population and Risk for Environmental Justice Analysis," Social Science Quarterly 83, no. 1 (March 2002): 281-97.
242. James T. Hamilton, "Testing for Environmental Racism: Prejudice, Profits or Political Power?" Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 14, no. 1 (1995): 107-32.
243. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), 169.
244. John A. Hird, Superfund: The Political Economy of Environmental Risk (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 136.
245. For an examination of the race/class debate see special issue of Social Science Quarterly 77, no. 3 (September 1996).
246. Susan L. Cutter, Danika Holm, and Lloyd Clark, "The Role of Geographic Scale in Monitoring Environmental Justice," Risk Analysis 16 (1996): 517-25.
247. Eileen M. McGurty, "City Renaissance on a Garbage Heap: Newark, NJ and Solid Waste Planning," Journal of Planning History 2, no. 4 (November 2003).
248. Rae Zimmerman, "Social Equity and Environmental Risk," Risk Analysis 13 (1993): 649-66;
249. Hird, Superfund.
250. UCC, Toxic Wastes and Race;
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252. Vicki Been, "Locally Undesirable Land Uses in Minority Neighborhoods: Disproportionate Siting or Market Dynamics," Yale Law Journal 10 (1994): 1383ff.
253. Pulido, "Rethinking Environmental Racism," 19;
254. Robert D. Bullard, "Environmental Justice: It's More Than Just Facility Siting," Social Science Quarterly 77, no. 3 (September 1996): 493-99.
255. For more on PIBBY see Bullard, Dumping in Dixie, 5;
256. Vicki Been, "Analyzing Evidence of Environmental Justice," Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law 11, no. 1 (Fall 1995): 21.
257. Bryant and Mohai, Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, 3-4.
258. Robert D. Bullard, "Conclusion: Environmentalism with Justice," Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1993), 196.
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262. EPA, Environmental Equity, 2:98.
263. Marianne Lavelle and Marcia Coyle, "Unequal Protection: The Racial Divide in Environmental Law," National Law Journal 21 (September 1992): S2.
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265. David Schlosberg, Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism: The Challenge of Difference for Environmentalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 3-4.
266. Laura Pulido, Environmental and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996), 24-30.
267. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993);
268. Margaret FitzSimmons and Robert Gottlieb, "A New Environmental Politics," in Reshaping the U.S. Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s, ed. Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (London: Verso Press, 1988);
269. Giovanna Di Chiro, "Defining Environmental Justice: Women's Voices and Grassroots Politics," Socialist Review 22, no. 4 (1992): 93-130.
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271. Robert C. Mitchell, Angela G. Mertig, and Riley E. Dunlap, "Twenty Years of Environmental Mobilization: Trends among National Environmental Organizations," Society and Natural Resources 4, no. 3 (1991): 219-34.
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273. Lee, Proceedings, 31.
274. Dorceta Taylor, "Blacks and the Environment," Environment and Behavior 21 (Winter 1989): 175-205.
275. Carolyn Merchant, "Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History," Environmental History 8, no. 3 (July 2003): 387.
276. Eugene Hargrove, "Forward," in Faces of Environmental Justice: Confronting Issues of Global Justice, ed. Laura Westra and Bill E. Lawson, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001).
277. Pulido, Environmental and Economic Justice, 125-90.
278. "Letter, Circa Earth Day 1990," 22.
279. EPA, Environmental Equity 2:111.
280. Lee, Proceedings, vii.
281. "A Place at the Table," Sierra 78, no. 3 (May/June 1993): 50-61.
282. Lee, Proceedings, 100.
283. Vernice Miller, "Building on Our Past, Planning for Our Future: Communities of Color and the Quest for Environmental Justice," in Toxic Struggles: The Theory and Practice of Environmental Justice, ed. Richard Hofrichter (Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers, 1993), 129.
284. Luke Cole and Sheila Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 1-9.
285. EPA, Environmental Equity 1:3.
286. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie, 116.
287. EPA, Environmental Equity 1:4.
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290. EPA, National Environmental Justice Advisory Council, Minutes, 3-5 August 1994, 4.
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292. EPA, National Environmental Justice Advisory Council, Minutes, 12-14 December 1995, 7.
293. Mayer N. Zald, "Looking Backward to Look Forward: Reflections on the Past and Future of the Resource Mobilization Research Program," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 326-48;
294. Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Organizational Structure of New Social Movements in a Political Context," in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Cultural Framings, ed. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 152-84.
295. Lee, Proceedings, 9.
296. As quoted in Christopher H. Foreman, The Promise and Peril of Environmental Justice (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1998), 117.
297. Bullard, Unequal Protection, xvi.
298. Laura Pulido, "Restructuring and the Contraction and Expansion of Environmental Rights in the United States," Environment and Planning A 26 (1994): 915-36.
299. Mfanya Donald Tryman, "Jesse Jackson's Campaigns for the Presidency," in Blacks and the American Political System, ed. Huey L. Perry and Wayne Parent (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1995), 67.
300. Lee, Proceedings, 73.
301. U.S. EPA, OSWER Environmental Justice Success Stories Report (FY 2002- 2003) (Washington, DC: EPA, 2004).
302. EPA, National Environmental Justice Advisory Council, Advancing Environmental Justice through Pollution Prevention (Washington, DC: EPA, 2003).
303. Eileen McGurty from "To Love the Wind and the Rain": African Americans and Environmental History, Dianne D. Glave and Mark Stoll, Eds., © 2005. Reprinted by permission of the University of Pittsburg Press.
304. Dorceta Taylor, "Can the Environmental Movement Attract and Maintain the Support of Minorities?" in Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse, ed. Bunyan Bryant and Paul Mohai (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), 44.
305. "Hunt to Citizens of Warren County," Warren Record, 20 October 1982, 1, 14.
306. EPA, A Citizen's Guide to Chemical Dehalogenation, April 1996, 2.
307. Patrick A. Barnes and Joel Hirschhorn, PCB Landfill Site Investigation Report, BFA Associates, Tallahassee, FL, September 1997, E1.
308. Warren County Citizen Advisory Board Files, Warrenton, NC, 2-9.
309. Michael Kelly, "Status of PCB Landfill Detoxification Warren County, NC," 26 May 1998.
310. Laura Pulido, "Development of the 'People of Color' Identity in the Environmental Justice Movement of the Southwestern United States," Socialist Review 26, no. 3 (1996): 149.
311. "Job Training Updates," Community News Wire 1 (August 2002): 3.
312. Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Toward a New Modernity (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992).
313. California Rural Legal Assistance Foundation,Comments on Draft Revised Guidance for Investigating Title VI Administrative Complaints Challenging Permits and Draft Title VI Guidance for EPA Assistance Recipients Administering Environmental Permitting Programs 26 August 2000, 8,http://www.epa.gov/ civilrights/docs/t6com2000-071.pdf.
314. Melanie Eversely, "Mayors Back Archer Stand on EPA Rules," Detroit Free Press, 23 June 1998, 5A.
315. Jennifer Dixon, "EPA Chief Hears Minority Concerns," Detroit Free Press, 18 July 1998, 3A.
316. Time, 3 August 1970, 42. http://www.sierraclub.org/environmental-justice/ stories/northcarolina.asp