Hexachlorocyclohexanes in the environment: Mechanisms of dechlorination

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 41, Issue 19, 2011, Pages 1747-1792

  Li, Shaolin ^a,b   Elliott, Daniel W ^b,c   Spear, Stephen T ^b   Ma, Luming ^a   Zhang, Wei Xian ^a,b  

^a TONGJI UNIVERSITY   (China)

^b Lehigh University   (United States)

^c GEOSYNTEC CONSULTANTS   (United States)

Author keywords

HCHs; hexachlorocyclohexanes; nanoscale zero valent iron; nonreductive elimination; nZVI; reaction pathways; reductive elimination

Indexed keywords

HCHS; HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANES; NANOSCALE ZERO-VALENT IRON; NONREDUCTIVE ELIMINATION; NZVI; REACTION PATHWAYS; REDUCTIVE ELIMINATION;

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES; CHLORINE; DECHLORINATION; GROUNDWATER; GROUNDWATER POLLUTION; IRON RESEARCH; MOLECULAR ORIENTATION; NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS; NANOTECHNOLOGY; REMEDIATION;

ISOMERS;

CYCLOHEXANE; GROUND WATER; HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE; IRON; NANOPARTICLE;

CHEMICAL PROPERTY; DECHLORINATION; GROUNDWATER POLLUTION; HCH; IRON; NATURAL ATTENUATION; PESTICIDE; PHYSICAL PROPERTY; REACTION KINETICS; REDUCTION; WATER TREATMENT;

ARTICLE; BIOREMEDIATION; CHEMICAL REACTION; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; DECHLORINATION; DEHALOGENATION; DEHYDROHALOGENATION; DIHALOELIMINATION; HUMAN; HYDROGENOLYSIS; ISOMER; NONREDUCTIVE ELIMINATION; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; REDUCTIVE ELIMINATION; SUBSTITUTION REACTION; WATER CONTAMINATION;

EID: 79960374383     PISSN: 10643389     EISSN: 15476537     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2010.481592     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Kolpin, D.W., Barbash, J.E., and Gilliom, R.J. (1998). Occurrence of pesticides in shallow groundwater of the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 558-566.
2. Walker, K., Vallero, D.A., and Lewis, R.G. (1999). Factors influencing the distribution of lindane and other hexachlorocyclohexanes in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 4373-4378. (Pubitemid 30007436)
3. Willett, K.L., Ulrich, E.M., and Hites, R.A. (1998). Differential toxicity and environmental fates of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 2197-2207. (Pubitemid 28359854)
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). List of drinking water contaminants & MCLs. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. EPA 816-F- 02-013.
5. World Health Organization. (2008). Guidelines for drinking water: Third edition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
6. Gao, J.J., Liu, L.H., Liu, X.R., Lu, J., Zhou, H.D., Huang, S.B., Wang, Z.J., and Spear, P.A. (2008). Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides-lindane, p,p-DDT, and heptachlor epoxide-in surface water of China. Environ. Int. 34, 1097-1103.
7. Hansen, K.M., Christensen, J.H., Brandt, J., Frohn, L.M., and Geels, C. (2004). Modelling atmospheric transport of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane in the northern hemisphere with a 3-D dynamical model: DEHM-POP. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 4, 1125-1137. (Pubitemid 39239254)
8. Hansen, K.M., Christensen, J.H., Brandt, J., Frohn, L.M., Geels, C., Skjoth, C.A., and Li, Y.F. (2008). Modeling short-term variability of alphahexachlorocyclohexane in Northern Hemispheric air. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 113 (D02310
9. Li, Y.F., Scholtz, M.T., and van Heyst, B.J. (2000). Global gridded emission inventories of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 105, 6621-6632.
10. Li, Y.F., Scholtz, M.T., and van Heyst, B.J. (2003). Global gridded emission inventories of 6-hexachlorocyclohexane. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 3493-3498. (Pubitemid 36999290)
11. Li, Y.F., Zhulidov, A.V., Robarts, R.D., and Korotova, L.G. (2005). Hexachlorocyclohexane use in the former Soviet Union. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 48(1), 10-15.
12. Li, Y.F., Zhulidov, A.V., Robarts, R.D., Korotova, L.G., Zhulidov, D.A., Yurtovaya, T.Y., and Ge, L.P. (2006). Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane usage in the Former Soviet Union. Sci. Tot. Environ. 357(1-3), 138-145. (Pubitemid 43276134)
13. Schwarzenbach, R.P., Gschwend, P.M., and Imboden, D.M. (2003). Environmental organic chemistry (2nd Ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
14. Slade, R.E. (1945). The γ -isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane (gammexane): An insecticide with outstanding properties. Chemistry and Industry 40, 314-319.
15. Iwata, H., Tanabe, S., Sakal, N., and Tatsukawa, R. (1993). Distribution of persistent organochlorines in the oceanic air and surface seawater and the role of ocean on their global transport and fate. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 1080-1098. (Pubitemid 24391838)
16. March, J. (1985). Advanced organic chemistry: Reactions, mechanisms, and structure (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley-Interscience.
17. Hughes, E.D., Ingold, C.K., and Pasternak, R.J. (1953). Mechanism of elimination reactions. Part XVIII. Kinetics and steric course of elimination from isomeric benzene hexachlorides. J. Chem. Soc. 3832-3839.
18. Mackay, D., Shiu, W.X., and Ma, K.C. (1997). Illustrated handbook of physicalchemical properties and environmental fate for organic chemicals. Volume V. New York, NY: Lewis.
19. Beland, F.A., Farwell, S.O., Robocker, A.E., and Geer, R.D. (1976). Electrochemical reduction and anaerobic degradation of lindane. J. Agric. Food Chem. 24, 753-756.
20. Hill, D.W., and McCarty, P.L. (1967). Anaerobic degradation of selected chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. J. Water. Poll. Control. Fed. 39, 1259-1277.
21. Jagnow, G., Haider, K., and Ellwardt, P.C. (1977). Anaerobic dechlorination and degradation of Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by anaerobic and faculative anaerobic bacteria. Arch. Microbiol. 115, 285-292. (Pubitemid 8248572)
22. Middledorp, P.J., Jaspers, M., Zehnder, A.J.B., and Schraa, G. (1996). Biotransformation of α-, β-, γ -, and δ- hexachlorocyclohexane under methanogenic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 2345-2349.
23. Ohisa, N., Yamaguchi, M., and Kurihara, N. (1980). Lindane degradation by cell-free extracts of chlostridium rectum. Arch. Microbiol. 125, 221-225. (Pubitemid 10028012)
24. Tsukano, Y., and Kobayashi, A. (1972). Formation of γ -BTC in flooded rice field soils treated with γ -BHC. Agr. Biol. Chem. 36, 166-167.
25. Johri, A.K., Dua, M., Tuteja, D., Saxena, R., Saxena, D.M., and Lal, R. (1996). Genetic manipulations of microorganisms for the degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 19, 69-84. (Pubitemid 26426197)
26. Quintero, J.C., Moreira, M.T., Feijoo, G., and Lema, J.M. (2005). Anaerobic degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in liquid and soil slurry systems. Chemosphere 61, 528-536. (Pubitemid 41394382)
27. Van Doesburg, W., Van Eekert, M.H.A., Middeldrop, P.J.M., Balk, M., Schraa, G., and Stams, A.J.M. (2005). Reductive dechlorination of β- hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) by a Dehalobacter species in coculture with a Sedimentibacter sp. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 54, 87.
28. Gupta, A., Kaushik, C.P., and Kaushik, A. (2000). Degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH, α, β, ? and δ) by Bacillus circulans and Bacillus brevis isolated from soil contaminated with HCH. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32, 1803-1805.
29. Rath, A.K., Ramakrishnan, B., Rath, A.K., Kumaraswamy, S., Bharati, K., Singla, P., and Sethunathan, S. (1998). Effect of pesticides on microbial biomass of flooded soil. Chemosphere 37, 661-671. (Pubitemid 28325411)
30. Sahu, S.K., Patnaik, K.K., and Sethunathan, N. (1992). Dehydrochlorination of δ-isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 48, 265-268.
31. Sahu, S.K., Patnaik, K.K., Bhuyan, S., Sreedharan, B., Kurihara, N., Adhya, T.K., and Sethunathan, N. (1995). Mineralization of α-, γ -, and β-isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium under aerobic conditions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 43, 833-837.
32. Sahu, S.K., Patnaik, K.K., Sharmila, M., and Sethunathan, N. (1990). Degradation of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium under aerobic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56, 3620-3622. (Pubitemid 20380757)
33. Wu, W.Z., Xu, Y., Schramm, K.W., and Kettrup, A. (1997). Study of sorption, biodegradation and isomerization of HCH in stimulated sediment/water system. Chemosphere 35, 1887-1894. (Pubitemid 27462342)
34. Orloff, H.D., Calingaert, G., Griffing, M.E., Kerr, E.R., and Kolka, A.J. (1951). The partial additive chlorination of the benzene ring. I. Alpha benzene tetrachloride. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73, 5224-5229.
35. Streitweiser, A., and Heathcock, C.H. (1981). Introduction to organic chemistry (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan.
36. Pauling, L. (1950). College chemistry. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.
37. Orloff, H.D. (1954). The stereoisomerism of cyclohexane derivatives. Chem. Rev. 54, 347-447.
38. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2005). Toxicological profile for alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-hexachlorocyclohexane. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
39. Montogomery, J.M. (1996). Groundwater chemicals desk reference (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis.
40. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1996). Soil screening guidance technical background document. EPA/540/R-95/128.
41. Hansen, K.M., Halsall, C.J., Christensen, J.H., Brandt, J., Frohn, L.M., Geels, C., and Skjoth, C.A. (2008). The role of the snowpack on the fate of alpha- HCH in an atmospheric chemistry-transport model. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 2943-2948. (Pubitemid 351536936)
42. Hansen, K.M., Prevedouros, K., Sweetman, A.J., Jones, K.C., and Christensen, J.H. (2006). A process-oriented inter-comparison of a box model and an atmospheric chemistry transport model: Insights into model structure using alpha- HCH as the modelled substance. Atmos. Environ. 40, 2089-2104. (Pubitemid 43255217)
43. Jantunen, L.M., Helm, P.A., Kylin, H., and Bidlemant, T.F. (2008). Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in the Canadian archipelago. 2. Air-water gas exchange of alpha- and gamma-HCH. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 465-470. (Pubitemid 351461895)
44. Jantunen, L.M., Kylin, H., and Bidleman, T.F. (2004). Air-water gas exchange of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane enantiomers in the South Atlantic Ocean and Antarctica. Deep-Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 51, 2661-2672. (Pubitemid 39569124)
45. Abhilash, P.C., and Singh, N. (2008). Influence of the application of sugarcane bagasse on lindane (gamma-HCH) mobility through soil column: Implication for biotreatment. Biores. Technol. 99, 8961-8966.
46. Quintero, J.C., Moreira, M.T., Feijoo, G., and Lema, J.M. (2005). Effect of surfactants on the soil desorption of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers and their anaerobic biodegradation. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 80, 1005-1015. (Pubitemid 41136448)
47. El Beit, I.O.D., Wheelock, J.V., and Cotton, D.E. (1981). Factors affecting soil residues of dieldrin, endosulfan, gamma-HCH, dimethoate and pyrolan. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 5, 135-160. (Pubitemid 11059127)
48. Pereira Vogel, T.M., Criddle, C.S., and McCarty, P.L. (1987). Transformations of halogenated aliphatic compounds. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21, 722-736.
49. Ingold, C.K. (1953). Structure and mechanism in organic chemistry. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
50. Ngabe, B., Bidleman, T.F., and Falconer, R.L. (1993). Base hydrolysis of α- and γ -hexachlorocylohexanes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 1930-1933.
51. Cristol, S.J. (1947). The kinetics of the alkaline dehydrochlorination of the benzene hexachloride isomers. The mechanism of second-order elimination reactions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 338-342.
52. Cristol, S.J., Hause, N.L., and Meek, J.S. (1951). Mechanism of elimination reactions. III. The kinetics of the alkaline dehydrochlorination of the benzene hexachloride isomers. II. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73, 674-679.
53. Hughes, E.D., and Ingold, C.K. (1941). The mechanism and kinetics of elimination reactions. Trans. Faraday Soc. 37, 657-685.
54. Liu, X., Peng, P., Fu, J., and Huang, W. (2003). Effects of FeS on the transformation kinetics of γ -hexachlorocyclohexane. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 1822-1828. (Pubitemid 36534757)
55. Casanova, J., and Rogers, H.R. (1974). Electroorganic chemistry. II. Electroreduction of vicinal dibromides. J. Org. Chem. 39, 2408-2410.
56. Stumm, W., and Morgan, J. (1996). Aquatic chemistry (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
57. Mackenzie, K., Battke, J., Koehler, R., and Kopinke, F.D. (2005). Catalytic effects of activated carbon on hydrolysis reactions of chlorinated organic compounds: Part 2. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 59, 171-179.
58. Kulikov, S.M., Plekhanov, V.P., Tsyganok, A.I., Schlimm, C., and Heitz, E. (1996). Electrochemical reductive dechlorination of chlororganic compounds on carbon cloth and metal-modified carbon cloth cathodes. Electrochimica Acta 41, 527-531. (Pubitemid 126350843)
59. Birkin, P.R., Evans, A., Milhano, C., Montenegro, M.I., and Pletcher, D. (2004). The mediated reduction of lindane in DMF. Electroanalysis 16, 583-587.
60. MacRae, I.C., Raghu, K., and Castro, T.F. (1967). Persistence and biodegradation of four common isomers of benzene hexachloride in submerged soils. J. Agr. Food Chem. 15, 911-914.
61. MacRae, I.C., Raghu, K., and Bautista, E.M. (1969). Anaerobic degradation of the insecticide lindane by clostridium sp. Nature 221, 859-860.
62. Sethunathan, N., Bautista, E.M., and Yoshida, T. (1969). Degradation of benzene hexachloride by a soil bacterium. Can. J. Microbiol. 15, 1349-1354.
63. Yule, W.N., Chiba, M., and Morely, H.V. (1967). Fate of insecticide residues. Decomposition of lindane in soil. J. Agr. Food Chem. 15, 1000-1004.
64. Bachmann, A., de Bruin, W., Jumelet, J.C., Rijnaarts, H.H.N., and Zehnder, A.J.B. (1988). Aerobic mineralization of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane in contaminated soil. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54, 548-554.
65. Bachmann, A., Walet, P., Wijnen, P., de Bruin, W., Huntjens, J.L.M., and Zehnder, A.J.B. (1988). Biodegradation of alpha and beta-hexachlorocyclohexane in a soil slurry under different redox conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54, 143-149. (Pubitemid 18024630)
66. Buser, H.R., and M'uller, M.D. (1995). Isomer and enantioselective degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in sewage sludge under anaerobic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 664-672.
67. Okeke, B.C., Siddique, T., Arbestain, M.C., and Frankenberger, W.T. (2002). Biodegradation of γ -hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane) and α- hexachlorocyclohexane in water and a soil slurry by a pandoraea species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50, 2548-2555. (Pubitemid 34437366)
68. Tu, C.M. (1975). Interaction between lindane and microbes in soils. Arch. Microbiol. 105, 131-134.
69. Tu, C.M. (1976). Utilization and degradation of lindane by soil microorganisms. Arch. Microbiol. 108, 258-263.
70. Siddique, T., Okeke, B.C., Arshad, M., and Frankenberger, W.T. (2000). Temperature and pH effects on biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in water and a soil slurry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50, 5070-5076. (Pubitemid 34925093)
71. Imai, R., Nagata, Y., Senoo, K., Wada, H., Fukuda, M., Takagi, M., and Yano, K. (1989). Dehydrochlorination of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-BHC) by gamma-BHC assimilating pseudomonas-paucimobilis. Agric. Biol. Chem. 53, 2015-2017.
72. Phillips, T.M., Lee, H., Trevors, J.T., and Seech, A.G. (2004). Mineralization of hexachlorocyclohexane in soil during solid-phase bioremediation. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 31, 216-222. (Pubitemid 39049789)
73. Phillips, T.M., Seech, A.G., Lee, H., and Trevors, J.T. (2005). Biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) by microorganisms. Biodegradation 16, 363-392. (Pubitemid 40601910)
74. Phillips, T.M., Lee, H., Trevors, J.T., and Seech, A.G. (2006). Full-scale in situ bioremediation of hexachlorocyclohexane-contaminated soil. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 81, 289-298. (Pubitemid 43336877)
75. Kumar, M., Gupta, S.K., Garg, S.K., and Kumar, A. (2006). Biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane-isomers in contaminated soil. Soil. Biol. Biochem. 38, 2318-2327.
76. Rubinos, D.A., Villasuso, R., Muniategui, S., Barral, M.T., and Diaz-Fierros, F. (2007). Using the land-farming technique to remediate soils contaminated with hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Water Air Soil Pollut. 181, 385-399. (Pubitemid 46631048)
77. Kumar, M., Chaudhary, P., Dwivedi, M., Kumar, R., Paul, D., Jain, R.K., Garg, S.K., and Kumar, A. (2005). Enhanced biodegradation of beta- and deltahexachlorocyclohexane in the presence of alpha- and gamma-isomers in contaminated soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 4005-4011. (Pubitemid 40770227)
78. Nagata, Y., Miyauchi, K., and Takagi, M. (1999). Complete analysis of genes and enzymes for gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane degradation in Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 23, 380-390. (Pubitemid 30066595)
79. Nagata, Y., Endo, R., Ito, M., Ohtsubo, Y., and Tsuda, M. (2007). Aerobic degradation of lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) in bacteria and its biochemical and molecular basis. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 76, 741-752. (Pubitemid 47340946)
80. Endo, R., Ohtsubo, Y., Tsuda, M., and Nagata, Y. (2007). Identification and characterization of genes encoding a putative ABC-type transporter essential for utilization of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane in Sphingobium japonicum UT26. J. Bacteriol. 189, 3712-3720. (Pubitemid 46740168)
81. Nagata, Y., Kamakura, M., Endo, R., Miyazaki, R., Ohtsubo, Y., and Tsuda, M. (2006). Distribution of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading genes on three replicons in Sphingobium japonicum UT26. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 256, 112-118.
82. Endo, R., Kamakura, M., Miyauchi, K., Fukuda, M., Ohtsubo, Y., Tsuda, M., and Nagata, Y. (2005). Identification and characterization of genes involved in the downstream degradation pathway of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane in Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26. J. Bacteriol. 187, 847-853. (Pubitemid 40189758)
83. Suar, M., Van Der Meer, J.R., Lawlor, M., Holliger, C., and Lal, R. (2004). Dynamics of multiple lin gene expression in sphingomonas paucimobilis B90A in response to different hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 6650-6656. (Pubitemid 39518575)
84. Ito, M., Prokop, Z., Klvana, M., Otsubo, Y., Tsuda, M., Damborsky, J., and Nagata, Y. (2007). Degradation of beta-hexachlorocyclohexane by haloalkane dehalogenase LinB from gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane-utilizing bacterium sphingobium sp MI1205. Arch. Microbiol. 188, 313-325. (Pubitemid 47415687)
85. Lal, R., Dogra, C., Malhotra, S., Sharma, P., and Pal, R. (2006). Diversity, distribution and divergence of lin genes in hexachlorocyclohexane- degrading sphingomonads. Trends Biotechnol. 24, 121-130.
86. Suar, M., Hauser, A., Poiger, T., Buser, H.R., Muller, M.D., Dogra, C., Raina, V., Holliger, C., Van Der Meer, J.R., Lal, R., and Kohler, H.P.E. (2005). Enantioselective transformation of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane by the dehydrochlorinases LinA1 and LinA2 from the soil bacterium Sphingomonas paucimobilis B90A. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 8514-8518. (Pubitemid 41803983)
87. Dogra, C., Raina, V., Pal, R., Suar, M., Lal, S., Gartemann, K.H., Holliger, C., Van Der Meer, J.R., and Lal, R. (2004). Organization of lin genes and IS6100 among different strains of hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading Sphingomonas paucimobilis: Evidence for horizontal gene transfer. J. Bacteriol. 186, 2225-2235. (Pubitemid 38451824)
88. Nagata, Y., Prokop, Z., Sato, Y., Jerabek, P., Kumar, A., Ohtsubo, Y., Tsuda, M., and Damborsky, J. (2005). Degradation of beta-hexachlorocyclohexane by haloalkane dehalogenase LinB from Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 2183-2185. (Pubitemid 40546148)
89. Schraa, G., Boone, M.L., Jetten, M.S.M., van Neerven, A.R.W., Colberg, P.J., and Zehnder, A.J.B. (1986). Degradation of 1,4-dichlorobenzene by alcaligenes sp. strain A175. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52, 1374-1381. (Pubitemid 17203865)
90. Nagasawa, S., Kikuchi, R., Nagata, Y., Takagi, M., and Matsuo, M. (1993). Stereochemical analysis of gamma-HCH degradation by pseudomonas-paucimobilis UT26. Chemosphere 26, 1187-1201. (Pubitemid 23107926)
91. Elliott, D.W., and Zhang, W.X. (2001). Field assessment of nanoscale bimetallic particles for groundwater treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 4922-4926. (Pubitemid 33144358)
92. Lien, H.L., and Zhang, W.X. (1999). Transformation of chlorinated methanes by nanoscale iron particles. J. Environ. Eng. 125, 1042-1047.
93. Wang, C.B., and Zhang, W.X. (1997). Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31, 2154-2156.
94. Xu, Y., and Zhang, W.X. (2000). Subcolloidal Fe/Ag particles for reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated benzenes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39, 2238-2244. (Pubitemid 30460537)
95. Zhang, W.X. (2003). Nanoscale iron particles for environmental remediation: An overview. J. Nanopart. Res. 5, 323-332.
96. Zhang, W.X., Wang, C.B., and Lien, H.L. (1998). Treatment of chlorinated organic contaminants with nanoscale bimetallic particles. Catal. Today 40, 387-395.
97. Li, X.Q., Elliott, D.W., and Zhang, W.X. (2006). Zero-valent iron nanoparticles for abatement of environmental pollutants: Materials and engineering aspects. Crit. Rev. Solid. State Mater. Sci. 31, 111-122. (Pubitemid 44826900)
98. Elliott, D.W., Lien, H.L., and Zhang, W.X. (2008). Zero valent iron Nanoparticles for treatment of ground water contaminated by hexachlorocyclohexanes. J. Environ. Qual. 37, 2192-2201. (Pubitemid 352766845)
99. Elliott, D.W., Lien, H.L., and Zhang, W.X. (2009). Degradation of lindane by zero valent iron nanoparticles. J. Environ. Eng. 135, 317-324.
100. Johnson, T.L., Scherer, M.M., and Tratnyek, P.G. (1996). Kinetics of halogenated organic compound degradation by iron metal. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 2634-2640. (Pubitemid 26266317)