From globalized pig breeds to capitalist pigs: A study in animal cultures and evolutionary history

Environmental History

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 94-120

  White, Sam ^a  

^a OBERLIN COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION; CAPITALISM; DOMESTICATION; ECONOMIC HISTORY; EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; FOREST ECOSYSTEM; GLOBALIZATION; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION; MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; MEAT; MICROCOSM; PIG; REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR; WILD POPULATION;

EUROPE; LATIN AMERICA;

ANIMALIA; SUIDAE;

EID: 79960360942     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: 19308892     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/envhis/emq143     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. For an overview of this new research, see, e.g., U. Albarella et al., eds., Pigs and Humans: 10,000 Years of Interaction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)
2. U. Albarella, K. Dobney, and P. Rowley-Conwy, "The Domestication of the Pig: New Challenges and Approaches," in Documenting Domestication: New Archaeological and Genetic Paradigms, ed. M. Zeder et al. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
3. For general information on pig biology and its relation to domestication, see W. Pond and H. Mersmann, eds., Biology of the Domestic Pig (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001)
4. Juliet Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), chapter 8.
5. See, e.g., Seung Og Kim, "Burials, Pigs, and Political Prestige in Northern China," Current Anthropology 35 (1994): 119-41
6. Bernard Sergent, "Le porc Indo-européen, d'ouest en est," in Mythologies du porc, ed. Philippe Walter (Grenoble: J. Millon, 1999).
7. This theory also finds support in Melanesian ethnography-see, e.g., Roy Rappaport, Pigs for the Ancestors (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
8. Jing Yuan and Rowan Flad, "Pig Domestication in Ancient China," Antiquity 76 (2002): 724-32.
9. On traditional pig varieties, see Ralph Phillips, Raymond Moyer, and Ray Johnson, The Livestock of China (Washington: Dept. of State Pub., 1945)
10. H. Epstein, Domestic Animals of China (New York: Africana Publication Corp., 1971).
11. On the recent archaeology of pigs in Neolithic Anatolia, see Michael Rosenberg and Richard Redding, "Early Pig Husbandry in Southwestern Asia and Its Implications for Modeling the Origins of Food Production," in Ancestors for the Pigs: Pigs in Prehistory, ed. Sarah Nelson (Philadelphia: U. Penn. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 1998).
12. For genetic evidence on domestication in the Near East and Europe, see G. Larson et al., "Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication," Science 307 (2005): 1618-21 (Pubitemid 40354743)
13. "Current Views on Sus Phylogeography and Pig Domestication as Seen through Modern MtDNA Studies," in Pigs and Humans: 10,000 Years of Interaction, ed. U. Albarella et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
14. For environmental and cultural theories of pig avoidance in general, see, e.g., Marvin Harris, Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture (Long Grove: Waveland Press, 1985), chapter 4
15. Frederick Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994), chapter 2.
16. On traditional mast feeding in Europe, see, e.g., C. L. ten Cate, Wan God Mast gift⋯ Bilder aus der Geschichte der Schweinezucht im Walde (Wageningen: Centre for Agricultural Pub. and Documentation, 1972).
17. For a modern study of pannage in twentieth-century Spain and its ecology, see James J. Parsons, "The Acorn-Hog Economy of the Oak Woodlands of Southwestern Spain," Geographical Review 52 (1962): 211-35.
18. On the long-term deforestation of China, see Mark Elvin, The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), chapters 3 and 4 passim
19. on ecological pressures in China's rice-growing regions see Francesca Bray, The Rice Economies: Technology and Development in Asian Societies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
20. On the efficiency of traditional Chinese pigs in these conditions of ecological pressure, see Eugene Anderson, The Food of China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 129.
21. On Chinese pork consumption, see, e.g., Frederick Simoons, Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1991), 297.
22. Robert Malcolmson and Stephanos Mastoris, The English Pig: A History (London: Hambledon Press, 1998), chapter 3.
23. Edward Cody, "Oh, to Be Born in the Year of the Pig,"Washington Post, March 1, 2007.
24. On pre-Christian pig cultures, see Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh, chapter 2
25. Philippe Walter, ed., Mythologies du porc (Grenoble: J. Millon, 1999).
26. M. Kearney, The Role of Swine Symbolism in Medieval Culture (Lewiston: Edward Mellen, 1991)
27. Sarah Phillips, "The Pig in Medieval Iconography," in Pigs and Humans: 10,000 Years of Interaction, ed. U. Albarella et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
28. E. P. Evans, The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals (London: Faber and Faber, 1987).
29. Claudine Fabre-Vassas, The Singular Beast: Jews, Christians, and the Pig (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999)
30. Jody Enders, "Homicidal Pigs and the Anti-Semitic Imagination," Exemplaria 14 (2002): 201-38.
31. See, e.g., Bridget A. Hemisch, "In Due Season: Farm Work in the Medieval Calendar Tradition" in Agriculture in the Middle Ages: Technology, Practice, and Representation, ed. Del Sweeney (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 316-18.
32. Parsons, "Acorn-Hog Economy."
33. E.g., Karl Winkelstern, Die Schweinezucht in klassischen Altertum (Giessen: R. Noske, 1933).
34. E.g., Joris Peters, Römische Tierhaltung und Tierzucht (Leidorf: Passauer Universitätsschriften zur Archäologie, 1998), chapter 4.3
35. Helmut Meyer, Peter Franke, and J. Schäffer, Hausschweine in der griechisch-römischen Antike: Eine morphologische und kulturhistorische Studie (Oldenburg: Isensee, 2004).
36. On population pressure in the Hellenic world, see Robert Sallares, The Ecology of the Ancient Greek World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).
37. On deforestation and pressure on forest resources, see J. Donald Hughes, Pan's Travail: Environmental Problems of the Ancient Greeks and Romans (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), chapter 5
38. Russell Meiggs, Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982).
39. Meyer, Franke, and Schäffer, Hausschweine, 53 et passim.
40. Aristotle, History of Animals, VII:xxi.
41. Columella, De Re Rustica, VII.ix: "Nec tamen propter haec parcetur horreis. Nam saepe de manu dandum est, cum foris deficit pabulum. Propter quod plurima glans vel cisternis in aquam vel fumo tabulates recondenda est. Fabae quoque et similium leguminum, cum vilitas permittit, facienda et potestas, et utique vere, dum adhuc lactent viridia pabula, quae suibus plerumque nocent."
42. Michael MacKinnon, "High on the Hog: Linking Zooarchaeological, Literary, and Artistic Data for Pig Breeds in Roman Italy," American Journal of Archaeology 105 (2001): 649-73.
43. Meyer, Franke, and Schäffer, Hausschweine, chapter 11
44. Frederick Zeuner, A History of Domesticated Animals (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 268
45. Sándor Bökönyi, History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1974), 217-20.
46. See especially ten Cate, Wan God Mast gift, and A. Ervynck et al., "An Investigation into the Transition from Forest Dwelling Pigs to Farm Animals in Medieval Flanders, Belgium," in Pigs and Humans: 10,000 Years of Interaction, ed. U. Albarella et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)
47. Robert Trow-Smith, A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700 (London: Routledge, 1957), 53, likewise notes that "Again in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, the literary reference to pig husbandry associates the swine with the wood, although some pigs were certainly housed or yarded from early Saxon times."
48. Sándor Bökönyi, "The Development of Stockbreeding and Herding in Medieval Europe" in Agriculture in the Middle Ages: Technology, Practice, and Representation, ed. Del Sweeney (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 42.
49. As in the English Domesday book-see, e.g., H. C. Darby, "Domesday Woodland," The Economic History Review 3 (1950): 21-43. Dues on pannage often contributed to the value of keeping woodlands.
50. Julian Wiseman, The Pig: A British History, 2nd ed. (London: Duckworth, 2000), 7
51. Jean Birrell, "Common Rights in the Medieval Forest: Disputes and Conflicts in the Thirteenth Century," Past and Present 117 (1987): 22-49.
52. For zooarchaeological evidence of the general decline in pig consumption in late medieval England, see also Annie Grant, "Animal Resources," in The Countryside of Medieval England, ed. G. Astill and A. Grant (London: Blackwell, 1988).
53. Anton Ervynck, "Orant, Pugnant, Laborant: The Diet of the Three Orders in the Feudal Society of Medieval North-Western Europe," in Behaviour behind Bones: The Zooarchaeology of Ritual, Religion, Status and Identity, ed. S. O'Day et al. (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2004).
54. Ervynck, "Orant, Pugnant, Laborant," 220.
55. See also Ervynck et al., "An Investigation into the Transition."
56. For instance, Mavis Mate, "Agricultural Technology in Southeast England, 1348-1530," in Medieval Farming and Technology, ed. Grenville Astill and John Langdon (Leiden: Brill, 1997) finds that as markets stagnated and as pannage grew cheaper and labor more expensive by the early fifteenth century, some farms stopped growing legumes to feed to pigs.
57. See also Philip Slavin, "Chicken Husbandry in Late-Medieval Eastern England c.1250-1400," Anthropozoologica 44 (2009): 35-56, which discusses a parallel development in poultry.
58. Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 25.
59. John Fitzherbert, Here Begynneth a Ryght Frutefull Mater: And Hath to Name the Boke of Surveyinge and Improvementes (n.p., 1523), chapter 8.
60. Conrad Heresbach, Foure Bookes of Husbandry, Collected by Heresbachius, Counsellor to the Hygh and Mighty Prince, the Duke of Cleue: Conteyning the Whole Arte and Trade of Husbandry, Wyth the Antiquitie, and Commendation Thereof. Newely Englished, and Increased, by Barbabe Googe, Esquire (London, 1577), 101-2, 148-52. This advice draws heavily on classical sources.
61. Malcolmson and Mastoris, English Pig, 36-37
62. Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, 186.
63. Pannage in the New Forest continued to generate substantial revenue for the Crown as late as the 1860s, long after it had died out in most of England-see Wiseman, Pig, 10-11.
64. Malcolmson and Mastoris, English Pig, 68. On the development of breeding techniques and understanding in England
65. see Nicholas Russell, Like Engend'ring Like (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
66. Pliny, Historia Naturalis, VIII.lxxix: "In nullo alio genere aeque facilis mixtura cum fero."
67. See also Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 176.
68. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), chapter 5.
69. For a broader comparative look at early modern environmental history, see especially John Richards, The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
70. See especially D. Flynn and A. Giraldez, "Path Dependence, Time Lags, and the Birth of Globalization," European Review of Economic History 8 (2003): 81-108
71. Geoffrey G. Gunn, First Globalization: The Eurasian Exchange, 1500-1800 (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003).
72. Alfred Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1972)
73. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism.
74. Donna Landry, Noble Brutes: How Eastern Horses Transformed English Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).
75. Ann Kleimola, "Cultural Convergence: The Equine Connection between Muscovy and Europe," in The Culture of the Horse: Status, Discipline, and Identity in the Early Modern World, ed. Karen Raber and Treva J. Tucker (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
76. Robin Law, The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Society of Pre-Colonial West Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980)
77. Ivana Elbl, "The Horse in Fifteenth-Century Senegambia," The International Journal of African Historical Studies 24 (1991): 85-110
78. James Webb, "The Horse and Slave Trade between the Western Sahara and Senegambia," The Journal of African History 34 (1993): 221-46. (Pubitemid 24384567)
79. Peter Boomgaard, "Horse Breeding, Long-Distance Horse Trading and Royal Courts in Indonesian History, 1500-1900" in Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, eds. Greg Bankoff and Sandra Swart (Copenhagen: NIAS, 2007).
80. Sandra Swart, "Riding High-Horses, Power and Settler Society in Southern Africa, c.1654-1840," in Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa 1500-1950, ed. Greg Bankoff and Sandra Swart (Copenhagen: NIAS, 2007).
81. Arthur MacGregor, "Strategies for Improving English Horses in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," Anthropozoologica 29 (1993): 65-74
82. Margaret Derry, Horses in Society: A Story of Animal Breeding and Marketing Culture, 1800-1920 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), chapter 2.
83. E.g., Gervase Markham, Maison Rustique, or the Country Farme (London, 1616), 105-9.
84. For general descriptions of urban pigs and scavenging on dairy and brewery waste, see Malcolmson and Mastoris, English Pig, 37.
85. See Radcliffe Salaman, The History and Social Influence of the Potato (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 393
86. Jean-Jacques Hermandiquer, "The Family Pig of the Ancien Régime: Myth or Fact?" in Selections from the Annales, ed. R. Forster and O. Ranum (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 57.
87. Wiseman, Pig, 12 quotes a 1683 edition of Cheap and Good Husbandry (originally by Gervase Markham) admiring Leicestershire hogs. John Mortimer, The Whole Art of Husbandry, or, the Way of Managing and Improving of Land (London, 1707), 184, mentions specifically that "The largest Swine, and the greatest numbers for any particular places, are bred in Leicestershire and some parts of Northamptonshire, and in the Clay Countries thereabouts, which I suppose proceeds from the great quantities of Beans and Pease sowed in those Parts."
88. E.g., John Lawrence, A New System of Agriculture (Dublin, 1727), 100-101
89. Richard Bradley, The Gentleman and Farmer's Guide for the Increase and Improvement of Cattle (London, 1732), 74-77, 93-95.
90. See also Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, 232-33.
91. Malcolmson and Mastoris, English Pig, 40
92. Wiseman, Pig, 12.
93. E. Giuffra et al., "The Origin of the Domestic Pig: Independent Domestication and Subsequent Introgression," Genetics 154 (2000): 1785-91. (Pubitemid 30211257)
94. E.g., Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, 52
95. Meyer, Hausschweine, 112.
96. K.-I. Kim et al., "Phylogenetic Relationships of Asian and European Pig Breeds Determined by Mitochondrial DNA D-Loop Sequence Polymorphism," Animal Genetics 33 (2002): 19-25 (Pubitemid 34137597)
97. A. Clop et al., "Estimating the Frequency of Asian Cytochrome B Haplotypes in Standard European and Local Spanish Pig Breeds," Genetics Selection Evolution 36 (2004): 97-104. (Pubitemid 38143368)
98. E.g., Lawrence, New System of Agriculture, 100.
99. Pehr Osbeck, A Voyage to China and the East Indies [1757] (London, 1771), 301: "The Chinese Swine are already so well described that I can add nothing. They are generally either black or white. They propagate more than ours, and are cleanly for which reason they are kept in houses like dogs. They also sometimes go into the streets, but never wallow in dirty places; however, I have been told by one of our husbandmen, that when they come to Sweden and see the uncleanness of our swine, they sometimes take to the same manner of living."
100. Pomeranz, Great Divergence.
101. For an overview, see Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England.
102. Trow-Smith, History British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, 221.
103. For archaeological evidence on age of slaughter in medieval times, see Ervynck, "Orant, Pugnant, Laborant" and Antonietta Buglione, "People and Animals in Northern Apulia from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages: Some Considerations," in Breaking and Shaping Beastly Bodies: Animals as Material Culture in the Middle Ages, ed. A. Pluskowski (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007).
104. Margaret Derry, Bred for Perfection: Shorthorn Cattle, Collies, and Arabian Horses since 1800 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), chapter 1.
105. See also Russell, Like Engend'ring Like, chapter 3.
106. See, e.g., Philip Huang, "Development or Involution in Eighteenth-Century Britain and China?" The Journal of Asian Studies 61 (2002): 501-38.
107. Mark Elvin, Pattern of the Chinese Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973), chapter 17.
108. Pomeranz, Great Divergence, chapter 6. It should be noted Pomeranz himself disputes the notion of "involution" per se, emphasizing instead China's lack of coal and colonies.
109. Sucheta Mazumdar, Sugar and Society in China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), conclusion.
110. For further comparisons of capitalism in Europe and China see, e.g., R. Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997).
111. Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, 216, describes pig husbandry in the early 1700s as "backward in the extreme." Interestingly, Robert Bakewell (1725-95), known for his improved sheep, also experimented with hogs, although evidently without the same degree of success-see Wiseman, Pig, chapter 4.
112. Michael E. Turner, J. V. Beckett, and Bethanie Afton, Farm Production in England, 1700-1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 202.
113. Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England, 115-16. Overton attributes the rise in pig prices in part to larger size, but because it appears the price of pork by weight was also rising, this conclusion is probably incorrect.
114. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations [1776], (New York: Bantam Classics, 2003), 305-7.
115. Joan Thirsk, Food in Early Modern England: Phases, Fads, Fashions 1500-1760 (London: Humbledon Continuum, 2006), 241-42.
116. Lawrence, New System of Agriculture, 100.
117. The Farmer's Compleat Guide, through All the Articles of his Profession; the Laying Out, Proportioning, and Cropping his Ground [etc.] (London, 1760), 414-15.
118. William Henry Hall, The New Encyclopedia of London (London, 1797), "Agriculture," section xxv.
119. Ralph Beilby, A General History of Quadrupeds. The Figures Engraved on Wood by T. Bewick (Newcastle, 1800), 164.
120. On animal breeding in nineteenth-century England, see, e.g., Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), chapter 1.
121. On the early production of new pig breeds using Chinese stock, see Malcolmson and Mastoris, English Pig, 73-75. Turner, Beckett, and Afton, Farm Production, 204, also find a spike in hog size in the early 1800s after decades of only gradual gains.
122. Robert Trow-Smith, A History of British Livestock Husbandry 1700-1900 (London: Routledge, 1959), 288.
123. Wiseman, Pig, 21-26, 35, 49, 54, 89
124. William Youatt, The Pig: A Treatise on the Breeds, Management, Feeding, and Medical Treatment of Swine (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), 63-64, 66-67, 68, 69-71, 72-73.
125. Wiseman, Pig, 27-28.
126. Youatt, Pig, 73.
127. See Malcolmson and Mastoris, English Pig, chapter 1.
128. See, e.g., the example from Majapahit on page 55 of Mary Heidhues, Southeast Asia: A Concise History (London: Thames and Hudson: 2001).
129. Ritvo, Animal Estate, 75
130. Wiseman, Pig, chapter 6.
131. On the first pig invasions, see Crosby, Columbian Exchange, 77-80 et passim
132. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 172-78.
133. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 128-40
134. Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
135. According to Youatt, Pig, 47: "The common breed may for the most part be described as rough, long-nosed, big-boned, thin-backed, slab-sided, ravenous, ugly." For various folksy descriptions and early American pig lore
136. see, e.g., Charles Towne and Edward Wentworth, Pigs, from Cave to Corn Belt (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950).
137. On this general reshaping of American agricultural practices and paradigms, see Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
138. On the broader shift from a subsistence to a market economy in America, see Peter Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-46 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chapter 1.
139. J. B. Bordley, Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs (Philadelphia, 1799), 224-25.
140. On agriculture and husbandry in the region, see James Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), chapter 6.
141. On the origins and development of Ohio Valley meatpacking, see Jimmy Skaggs, Prime Cut: Livestock Raising and Meatpacking in the United States, 1607-1983 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1986), chapter 2.
142. On the origins and history of the breed, see Jay E. Coble, History of the Poland China Breed of Swine, 1876-1976 (Poland China Record Association, 1976).
143. On the industrialization of American meat-packing in general, see William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the GreatWest (New York: Norton, 1991), chapter 5
144. Wilson Warren, Tied to the Great Packing Machine: The Midwest and Meatpacking (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007).
145. On Midwestern pork packing in particular, see Margaret Walsh, "Pork Packing as a Leading Edge of Midwestern Industry 1835-1875," Agricultural History 51 (1977): 702-17
146. "From Pork Merchant to Meat Packer: The Midwestern Meat Industry in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," Agricultural History 56 (1982): 127-37.
147. Robert E. Taylor and Thomas G. Field, Scientific Farm Animal Production, 8th ed. (Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2004), 12.
148. On E. B. White and the background to the novel, see Lucien Agosta, E. B. White: The Children's Books (New York: Gale, 1995).
149. On the transformation of livestock production in general, see Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, "Putting Meat on the Table: Industrial Farm Animal Production in America," (The Pew Charitable Trusts/Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 2008)
150. William Boyd, "Making Meat: Science, Technology, and the American Poultry Industry," Technology and Culture 42 (2001): 631-64.
151. On hogs in particular, see W. G. Pond, "Modern Pork Production," Scientific American 248 (1983): 78-87
152. Mark Finlay, "Hogs, Antibiotics, and the Industrial Environments of Post-War Agriculture," in Industrializing Organisms, ed. S. Schrepfer and P. Scranton (New York: Routledge, 2004).
153. Early experiments with gene transplants to increase weight gain tended to create serious health problems (see, e.g., V. Pursel et al., "Genetic Engineering of Livestock," Science 244 (1989): 1281-88) and have not produced many notable breakthroughs since. However, experiments to genetically engineer pigs for xenotransplantation have continued. (Pubitemid 19170496)
154. On the modern decline of minor breeds, see S. J. Hall, "Breed Structures of Rare Pigs," Conservation Biology 3 (1989): 30-38
155. Wiseman, Pig, 114-15.
156. www.theotherwhitemeat.com (last visited February 4, 2011).
157. William Cronon, "Modes of Prophecy and Production," Journal of American History 76 (1990): 1122-31.
158. Edmund Russell, "Evolutionary History: Prospectus for a New Field," Environmental History 8 (2003): 204-28. (Pubitemid 36639858)
159. "Introduction-the Garden in the Machine: Toward an Evolutionary History of Technology," in Industrializing Organisms, ed. S. Schrepfer and P. Scranton (New York: Routledge, 2004).