Diabetic nephropathy - Epidemiology in Asia and the current state of treatment

Indian Journal of Nephrology

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 75-84

  Ritz, E ^a,c   Zeng, X ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

^b SICHUAN UNIVERSITY   (China)

^c Division Nephrology   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALISKIREN; AMLODIPINE; AMLODIPINE PLUS BENAZEPRIL; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ATRASENTAN; AVOSENTAN; BENAZEPRIL PLUS HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; CHYMASE INHIBITOR; DAPAGLIFLOZIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; EPLERENONE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; IRBESARTAN; PARICALCITOL; RENIN INHIBITOR; SPIRONOLACTONE;

ALBUMINURIA; ASIA; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY; DIALYSIS; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; FLUID RETENTION; HUMAN; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIFESTYLE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PREVALENCE; PROTEINURIA; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SODIUM RESTRICTION; SODIUM RETENTION;

EID: 79960128996     PISSN: 09714065     EISSN: 19983662     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4103/0971-4065.82122     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Frank LL. Diabetes mellitus in the texts of old Hindu medicine (Charaka, Susruta, Vagbhata). Am J Gastroenterol 1957;27:76-95.
2. Kaur P, Radhakrishnan E, Rao SR, Sankarasubbaiyan S, Rao TV, Gupte MD. The metabolic syndrome and associated risk factors in an urban industrial male population in South India. J Assoc Physicians India 2010;58:363-6, 371.
3. Zimmet P, KG Alberti, J Shaw. Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature 2001;414:782-7. (Pubitemid 34000780)
4. Ramachandran A, Ma RC, Snehalatha C. Diabetes in Asia. Lancet 2010;375:408-18.
5. Yoon KH, Lee JH, Kim JW, Cho JH, Choi YH, Ko SH, et al. Epidemic obesity and type 2 diabetes in Asia. Lancet 2006;368:1681-8. (Pubitemid 46048556)
6. Sridhar GR, Putcha V, Lakshmi G. Time trends in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus: Ten year analysis from southern India (1994-2004) on 19,072 subjects with diabetes. J Assoc Physicians India 2010;58:290-4.
7. Mohan V, Sandeep S, Deepa R, Shah B, Varghese C. Epidemiology of type 2 diabetes: Indian scenario. Indian J Med Res 2007;125:217-30. (Pubitemid 46805444)
8. Raman R, Gupta A, Pal SS, Ganesan S, Venkatesh K, Kulothungan V. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its influence on microvascular complications in the Indian population with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Sankara Nethralaya Diabetic Retinopathy Epidemiology And Molecular Genetic Study (SNDREAMS, report 14). Diabetol Metab Syndr 2010;2:67.
9. Mohan V, Shanthirani CS, Deepa R. Glucose intolerance (diabetes and IGT) in a selected South Indian population with special reference to family history, obesity and lifestyle factors-the Chennai Urban Population Study (CUPS 14). J Assoc Physicians India 2003;51:771-7. (Pubitemid 41315499)
10. Ravikumar P, Bhansali A, Walia R, Shanmugasundar G, Ravikiran M. Alterations in HbA(1c) with advancing age in subjects with normal glucose tolerance: Chandigarh Urban Diabetes Study cGroup. Diabet Med 2011 [In Press].
11. Goyal RK, Shah VN, Saboo BD, Phatak SR, Shah NN, Gohel MC, et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in Indian adolescent school going children: Its relationship with socioeconomic status and associated lifestyle factors. J Assoc Physicians India 2010;58:151-8.
12. Deepa M, Pradeepa R, Rema M, Mohan A, Deepa R, Shanthirani S, et al. The Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES)-study design and methodology (urban component) (CURES-I). J Assoc Physicians India 2003;51:863-70. (Pubitemid 41279865)
13. Abdul FB. Type 2 diabetes and rural India. Lancet, 2007;369:273-4. (Pubitemid 46136484)
14. Gupta SK, Singh Z, Purty AJ, Kar M, Vedapriya D, Mahajan P, et al. Diabetes prevalence and its risk factors in rural area of Tamil Nadu. Indian J Community Med 2010;35:396-9.
15. Jonas JB, Panda-Jonas S, Nangia V, Joshi PP, Matin A. Diabetes mellitus in rural India. Epidemiology 2010;21:754-5.
16. Pradeepa R, Anjana RM, Unnikrishnan R, Ganesan A, Mohan V, Rema M. Risk factors for microvascular complications of diabetes among South Indian subjects with type 2 diabetes-the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES) Eye Study-5. Diabetes Technol Ther 2010;12:755-61.
17. Agarwal SK, RK Srivastava. Chronic kidney disease in India: Challenges and solutions. Nephron Clin Pract 2009;111:c197-203.
18. Jha V. Current status of end-stage renal disease care in South Asia. Ethn Dis 2009;19:S1-27-32.
19. Modi GK, Jha V. The incidence of end-stage renal disease in India: A population-based study. Kidney Int 2006;70:2131-3. (Pubitemid 44871376)
20. Aggarwal HK, Yashodara BM, Nand N, Sonia, Chakrabarti D, Bharti K. et al. Spectrum of renal disorders in a tertiary care hospital in Haryana. J Assoc Physicians India 2007;55:198-202.
21. Prakash J, Hota JK, Singh S, Sharma OP. Clinical spectrum of chronic renal failure in the elderly: A hospital based study from eastern India. Int Urol Nephrol 2006;38:821-7. (Pubitemid 46336048)
22. Unnikrishnan RI, Rema M, Pradeepa R, Deepa M, Shanthirani CS, Deepa R, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic nephropathy in an urban South Indian population: The Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES 45). Diabetes Care 2007;30:2019-24. (Pubitemid 47219412)
23. Schwenger V, Müssig C, Hergesell O, Zeier M, Ritz E. Incidence and clinical characteristics of renal insufficiency in diabetic patients. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2001;126:1322-6. (Pubitemid 33116423)
24. Soni SS, Gowrishankar S, Kishan AG, Raman A. Non diabetic renal disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nephrology (Carlton) 2006;11:533-7. (Pubitemid 44951236)
25. Gray LJ, Tringham JR, Davies MJ, Webb DR, Jarvis J, Skinner TC, et al. Screening for type 2 diabetes in a multiethnic setting using known risk factors to identify those at high risk: A cross-sectional study. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2010;6:837-42.
26. Lightstone L, Rees AJ, Tomson C, Walls J, Winearls CG, Feehally J, et al. High incidence of end-stage renal disease in Indo-Asians in the UK. QJM 1995;88:191-5.
27. Barbour SJ, Er L, Djurdjev O, Karim M, Levin A. Differences in progression of CKD and mortality amongst Caucasian, Oriental Asian and South Asian CKD patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010;25:3663-72.
28. Wilkinson E, Randhawa G, Farrington K, Greenwood R, Feehally J, Choi P, et al. Lack of awareness of kidney complications despite familiarity with diabetes: A multi-ethnic qualitative study. J Ren Care 2011;37:2-11.
29. Geneau R, Stuckler D, Stachenko S, McKee M, Ebrahim S, Basu S, et al. Raising the priority of preventing chronic diseases: A political process. Lancet 2010;376:1689-98.
30. Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hämäläinen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1343-50. (Pubitemid 32378388)
31. Gong Q, Gregg EW, Wang J, An Y, Zhang P, Yang W, et al. Longterm effects of a randomised trial of a 6-year lifestyle intervention in impaired glucose tolerance on diabetes-related microvascular complications: The China Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Outcome Study. Diabetologia 2011;54:300-7.
32. Ritz E, Rychlík I, Locatelli F, Halimi S. End-stage renal failure in type 2 diabetes: A medical catastrophe of worldwide dimensions. Am J Kidney Dis 1999;34:795-808. (Pubitemid 29521694)
33. Stel VS, Tomson C, Ansell D, Casino FG, Collart F, Finne P, et al. Level of renal function in patients starting dialysis: An ERA-EDTA Registry study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010;25:3315-25.
34. Pavkov ME, Knowler WC, Bennett PH, Looker HC, Krakoff J, Nelson RG. Increasing incidence of proteinuria and declining incidence of end-stage renal disease in diabetic Pima Indians. Kidney Int 2006;70:1840-6. (Pubitemid 44684817)
35. MacIsaac RJ, Tsalamandris C, Panagiotopoulos S, Smith TJ, McNeil KJ, Jerums G. Nonalbuminuric renal insufficiency in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:195-200. (Pubitemid 38196732)
36. Retnakaran R, Cull CA, Thorne KI, Adler AI, Holman RR, UKPDS Study Group. Risk factors for renal dysfunction in type 2 diabetes: U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study 74. Diabetes 2006;55:1832-9. (Pubitemid 44324140)
37. Kramer HJ, Nguyen QD, Curhan G, Hsu CY. Renal insufficiency in the absence of albuminuria and retinopathy among adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA 2003;289:3273-7. (Pubitemid 37430080)
38. Uzu T, Kida Y, Shirahashi N, Harada T, Yamauchi A, Nomura M, et al. Cerebral microvascular disease predicts renal failure in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:520-6.
39. Wald R, Quinn RR, Luo J, Li P, Scales DC, Mamdani MM, et al. Chronic dialysis and death among survivors of acute kidney injury requiring dialysis. JAMA 2009;302:1179-85.
40. Adler AI, Stevens RJ, Manley SE, Bilous RW, Cull CA, Holman RR. Development and progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes: The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS 64). Kidney Int 2003;63:225-32. (Pubitemid 35463925)
41. Halimi JM, Bonnet F, Lange C, Balkau B, Tichet J, Marre M. Urinary albumin excretion is a risk factor for diabetes mellitus in men, independently of initial metabolic profile and development of insulin resistance. The DESIR Study. J Hypertens 2008;26: 2198-206.
42. Altiparmak MR, Pamuk ON, Pamuk GE, Apaydin S, Ozbay G. Diffuse diabetic glomerulosclerosis in a patient with impaired glucose tolerance: Report on a patient who later develops diabetes mellitus. Neth J Med 2002;60:260-2.
43. Souraty P, Nast CC, Mehrotra R, Barba L, Martina J, Adler SG. Nodular glomerulosclerosis in a patient with metabolic syndrome without diabetes. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2008;4:639-42.
44. Brantsma AH. Bakker SJ, Hillege HL, de Zeeuw D, de Jong PE, Gansevoort RT. Urinary albumin excretion and its relation with C-reactive protein and the metabolic syndrome in the prediction of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2525-30. (Pubitemid 41384305)
45. Ninomiya T, Perkovic V, de Galan BE, Zoungas S, Pillai A, Jardine M, et al. Albuminuria and kidney function independently predict cardiovascular and renal outcomes in diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:1813-21.
46. de Fine Olivarius N, Siersma V, Nielsen AB, Hansen LJ, Rosenvinge L, Mogensen CE. Predictors of mortality of patients newly diagnosed with clinical type 2 diabetes: A 5-year follow up study. BMC Endocr Disord 2010;10:14.
47. Ruggenenti P, Remuzzi G. Time to abandon microalbuminuria? Kidney Int 2006;70:1214-22. (Pubitemid 44435172)
48. Hillege HL, Fidler V, Diercks GF, van Gilst WH, de Zeeuw D, van Veldhuisen DJ, et al. Urinary albumin excretion predicts cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality in general population. Circulation 2002;106:1777-82.
49. Solomon SD, Lin J, Solomon CG, Jablonski KA, Rice MM, Steffes M, et al. Influence of albuminuria on cardiovascular risk in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Circulation 2007;116:2687-93. (Pubitemid 350301148)
50. Gaede P, Tarnow L, Vedel P, Parving HH, Pedersen O. Remission to normoalbuminuria during multifactorial treatment preserves kidney function in patients with type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004;9:2784-8. (Pubitemid 39480973)
51. Gross ML, Hanke W, Koch A, Ziebart H, Amann K, Ritz E. Intraperitoneal protein injection in the axolotl: The amphibian kidney as a novel model to study tubulointerstitial activation. Kidney Int 2002;62:51-9. (Pubitemid 34754047)
52. Tapp RJ, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ, Balkau B, Chadban SJ, Tonkin AM, et al. Albuminuria is evident in the early stages of diabetes onset: Results from the Australian Diabetes, Obesity, and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). Am J Kidney Dis 2004;44:792-8. (Pubitemid 39445910)
53. Stratton IM, Cull CA, Adler AI, Matthews DR, Neil HA, Holman RR. Additive effects of glycaemia and blood pressure exposure on risk of complications in type 2 diabetes: A prospective observational study (UKPDS 75). Diabetologia 2006;49:1761-9. (Pubitemid 44025030)
54. Yang YH, He XJ, Chen SR, Wang L, Li EM, Xu LY. Changes of serum and urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin in type-2 diabetic patients with nephropathy: One year observational follow-up study. Endocrine 2009;36:45-51.
55. Miranda KC, Bond DT, McKee M, Skog J, Pǎunescu TG, Da Silva N, et al. Nucleic acids within urinary exosomes/microvesicles are potential biomarkers for renal disease. Kidney Int 2010;78: 191-9.
56. Rossing K, Mischak H, Dakna M, Zürbig P, Novak J, Julian BA,et al. Urinary proteomics in diabetes and CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:1283-90.
57. Hovind P, Rossing P, Tarnow L, Johnson RJ, Parving HH. Serum uric acid as a predictor for development of diabetic nephropathy in type 1 diabetes: An inception cohort study. Diabetes 2009;58:1668-71.
58. Pirart J. Diabetes mellitus and its degenerative complications: A prospective study of 4,400 patients observed between 1947 and 1973 (3rd and last part) (author's transl). Diabete Metab 1977;3:245-56.
59. Atkins RC, Briganti EM, Lewis JB, Hunsicker LG, Braden G, Champion de Crespigny PJ, et al. Proteinuria reduction and progression to renal failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and overt nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 2005;45:281-7. (Pubitemid 40431053)
60. Eijkelkamp WB, Zhang Z, Remuzzi G, Parving HH, Cooper ME, Keane WF, et al. Albuminuria is a target for renoprotective therapy independent from blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy: Post hoc analysis from the Reduction of Endpoints in NIDDM with the Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan (RENAAL) trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;18:1540-6. (Pubitemid 46717521)
61. Araki S, Haneda M, Koya D, Hidaka H, Sugimoto T, Isono M, et al. Reduction in microalbuminuria as an integrated indicator for renal and cardiovascular risk reduction in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2007;56:1727-30. (Pubitemid 46842621)
62. Schneider CA, Ferrannini E, Defronzo R, Schernthaner G, Yates J, Erdmann E, et al. Effect of pioglitazone on cardiovascular outcome in diabetes and chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:182-7.
63. Bash LD, Selvin E, Steffes M, Coresh J, Astor BC. Poor glycemic control in diabetes and the risk of incident chronic kidney disease even in the absence of albuminuria and retinopathy: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:2440-7.
64. Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Matthews DR, Neil HA. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008;359:1577-89.
65. Cooper ME, A El-Osta. Epigenetics: Mechanisms and implications for diabetic complications. Circ Res 2010;107:1403-13.
66. Morath C, Zeier M, Döhler B, Schmidt J, Nawroth PP, Opelz G. Metabolic control improves long-term renal allograft and patient survival in type 1 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:1557-63.
67. Morath C, Zeier M, Döhler B, Schmidt J, Nawroth PP, Schwenger V, et al. Transplantation of the type 1 diabetic patient: The long-term benefit of a functioning pancreas allograft. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;5:549-52.
68. Poulter NR. Blood pressure and glucose control in subjects with diabetes: New analyses from ADVANCE. J Hypertens Suppl 2009;27:S3-8.
69. Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, Neal B, Billot L, Woodward M, et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2560-72. (Pubitemid 351831357)
70. Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, Reda D, Emanuele N, Reaven PD, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009;360:129-39.
71. Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, Goff DC Jr, Bigger JT, Buse JB, et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2545-59. (Pubitemid 351831356)
72. Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO, Buse J, Deedwania P, Gale EA, et al. Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: Implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA diabetes trials: A position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a scientific statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. Diabetes Care 2009;32:187-92.
73. Erdmann E. Microalbuminuria as a marker of cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes. Int J Cardiol 2006;107:147-53.
74. Sarafidis PA, Lasaridis AN, Nilsson PM, Pagkalos EM, Hitoglou-Makedou AD, Pliakos CI, et al. Ambulatory blood pressure reduction after rosiglitazone reatment in patients with type 2 diabetes and hypertension correlates with insulin sensitivity increase. J Hypertens 2004;22:1769-77. (Pubitemid 39141970)
75. Schernthaner G, Chilton RJ. Cardiovascular risk and thiazolidinediones- what do meta-analyses really tell us? Diabetes Obes Metab 2010;12:1023-35.
76. Nesto RW, Bell D, Bonow RO, Fonseca V, Grundy SM, Horton ES, et al. Thiazolidinedione use, fluid retention, and congestive heart failure: A consensus statement from the American Heart Association and American Diabetes Association. October 7, 2003. Circulation 2003;108:2941-8. (Pubitemid 37517824)
77. KanjanabuchT, Ma LJ, Chen J, Pozzi A, Guan Y, Mundel P, et al. PPAR-gamma agonist protects podocytes from injury. Kidney Int 2007;71:1232-9. (Pubitemid 46884258)
78. Yang HC, Deleuze S, Zuo Y, Potthoff SA, Ma LJ, Fogo AB. The PPARgamma agonist pioglitazone ameliorates aging-related progressive renal injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2380-8.
79. List JF, Woo V, Morales E, Tang W, Fiedorek FT. Sodiumglucose cotransport inhibition with dapagliflozin in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:650-7.
80. Bailey CJ, Gross JL, Pieters A, Bastien A, List JF. Effect of dapagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes who have inadequate glycaemic control with metformin: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2010;375:2223-33.
81. Hsu CY, McCulloch CE, Darbinian J, Go AS, Iribarren C. Elevated blood pressure and risk of end-stage renal disease in subjects without baseline kidney disease. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:923-8. (Pubitemid 40563240)
82. Gress TW, Nieto FJ, Shahar E, Wofford MR, Brancati FL. Hypertension and antihypertensive therapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. N Engl J Med 2000;342:905-12. (Pubitemid 30177050)
83. Jandeleit-Dahm KA, Tikellis C, Reid CM, Johnston CI, Cooper ME. Why blockade of the renin-angiotensin system reduces the incidence of new-onset diabetes. J Hypertens 2005;23:463-73. (Pubitemid 40684700)
84. Tikellis C, Wookey PJ, Candido R, Andrikopoulos S, Thomas MC, Cooper ME. Improved islet morphology after blockade of the reninangiotensin system in the ZDF rat. Diabetes 2004;53:989-97. (Pubitemid 38436611)
85. Kamoi K, Miyakoshi M, Soda S, Kaneko S, Nakagawa O. Usefulness of home blood pressure measurement in the morning in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2002;25:2218-23. (Pubitemid 41071031)
86. Lurbe E, Redon J, Kesani A, Pascual JM, Tacons J, Alvarez V, et al. Increase in nocturnal blood pressure and progression to microalbuminuria in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2002;347:797-805. (Pubitemid 34988338)
87. Palmas W, Pickering T, Teresi J, Schwartz JE, Eguchi K, Field L, et al. Nocturnal blood pressure elevation predicts progression of albuminuria in elderly people with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2008;10:12-20.
88. Mancia G, Laurent S, Agabiti-Rosei E, Ambrosioni E, Burnier M, Caulfield MJ, et al. Reappraisal of European guidelines on hypertension management: A European Society of Hypertension Task Force document. J Hypertens 2009;27:2121-58.
89. de Galan BE, Perkovic V, Ninomiya T, Pillai A, Patel A, Cass A, et al. Lowering blood pressure reduces renal events in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:883-92.
90. Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB, Pfeffer MA, Porush JG, Rouleau JL, et al. Impact of achieved blood pressure on cardiovascular outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2170-9. (Pubitemid 41716450)
91. Sleight P, Redon J, Verdecchia P, Mancia G, Gao P, Fagard R, et al. Prognostic value of blood pressure in patients with high vascular risk in the Ongoing Telmisartan Alone and in combination with Ramipril Global Endpoint Trial study. J Hypertens 2009;27:1360-9.
92. Barnett AH, Bain SC, Bouter P, Karlberg B, Madsbad S, Jervell J, cet al. Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1952-61. (Pubitemid 39447136)
93. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, Berl T, Pohl MA, Lewis JB, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:851-60.
94. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Keane WF, Mitch WE, Parving HH, et al. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001;345:861-9.
95. Pohl MA, Blumenthal S, Cordonnier DJ, De Alvaro F, Deferrari G, Eisner G, et al. Independent and additive impact of blood pressure control and angiotensin II receptor blockade on renal outcomes in the irbesartan diabetic nephropathy trial: Clinical implications and limitations. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:3027-37. (Pubitemid 44743500)
96. Bakris GL, Sarafidis PA, Weir MR, Dahlöf B, Pitt B, Jamerson K, et al. Renal outcomes with different fixed-dose combination therapies in patients with hypertension at high risk for cardiovascular events (ACCOMPLISH): A prespecified secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010;375:1173-81.
97. Krikken JA, Laverman GD, Navis G. Benefits of dietary sodium restriction in the management of chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 2009;18:531-8.
98. Bakris GL, Ruilope L, Locatelli F, Ptaszynska A, Pieske B, de Champlain J, et al. Treatment of microalbuminuria in hypertensive subjects with elevated cardiovascular risk: Results of the IMPROVE trial. Kidney Int 2007;72:879-85. (Pubitemid 47462081)
99. Sato A, Hayashi K, Naruse M, Saruta T. Effectiveness of aldosterone blockade in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Hypertension 2003;41:64-8. (Pubitemid 36056793)
100. Schjoedt KJ, Andersen S, Rossing P, Tarnow L, Parving HH. Aldosterone escape during blockade of the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system in diabetic nephropathy is associated with enhanced decline in glomerular filtration rate. Diabetologia 2004;47:1936-9. (Pubitemid 40110201)
101. Furumatsu Y, Nagasawa Y, Tomida K, Mikami S, Kaneko T, Okada N, et al. Effect of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system triple blockade on non-diabetic renal disease: Addition of an aldosterone blocker, spironolactone, to combination treatment with an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor and angiotensin II receptor blocker. Hypertens Res 2008;31:59-67. (Pubitemid 351325616)
102. Mehdi UF, Adams-Huet B, Raskin P, Vega GL, Toto RD. Addition of angiotensin receptor blockade or mineralocorticoid antagonism to maximal angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2641-50.
103. Parving HH, Persson F, Lewis JB, Lewis EJ, Hollenberg NK. AVOID Study Investigators. Aliskiren combined with losartan in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2433-46. (Pubitemid 351793017)
104. Wenzel RR, Littke T, Kuranoff S, Jürgens C, Bruck H, Ritz E, et al. Avosentan reduces albumin excretion in diabetics with macroalbuminuria. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:655-64.
105. Mann JF, Green D, Jamerson K, Ruilope LM, Kuranoff SJ, Littke T, et al. Avosentan for overt diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:527-35.
106. Schwarz U, Amann K, Orth SR, Simonaviciene A, Wessels S, Ritz E. Effect of 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 on glomerulosclerosis in subtotally nephrectomized rats. Kidney Int 1998;53:1696-705 (Pubitemid 28243754)
107. de Zeeuw D, Agarwal R, Amdahl M, Audhya P, Coyne D, Garimella T, et al. Selective vitamin D receptor activation with paricalcitol for reduction of albuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes (VITAL study): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 376:1543-51.