Infectious causes of seizures and epilepsy in the developing world

Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology

Volumn 53, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 600-609

  Singhi, Pratibha ^a  

^a POSTGRADUATE INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALBENDAZOLE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CORTICOSTEROID; ERYTHROMYCIN; ETHOSUXIMIDE; INDINAVIR; ISONIAZID; LAMOTRIGINE; MEROPENEM; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PRAZIQUANTEL; RIFAMPICIN; RITONAVIR; VALPROIC ACID; ZIDOVUDINE;

ADJUVANT THERAPY; ARBOVIRUS; BACTERIAL MENINGITIS; BRAIN ABSCESS; BRAIN MALARIA; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CD8+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM TUBERCULOSIS; CHICKENPOX; CHIKUNGUNYA ALPHAVIRUS; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; DENGUE VIRUS; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DISEASE SEVERITY; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; EPIDEMIC ENCEPHALITIS; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTIC STATE; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B; HEARING LOSS; HELMINTHIASIS; HERPES SIMPLEX ENCEPHALITIS; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 1; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS; MALARIA; MEASLES; MEDLINE; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); MUMPS; NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS; NEUROCYSTICERCOSIS; NEUROIMAGING; NIPAH VIRUS; NIPAH VIRUS INFECTION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PNEUMOCOCCAL MENINGITIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SCHISTOSOMA JAPONICUM; SEIZURE; SPARGANOSIS; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; SUBDURAL EMPYEMA; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); TAENIA SOLIUM; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT RESPONSE; VIRUS ENCEPHALITIS;

ACUTE DISEASE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTIONS; CHILD; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; ENCEPHALITIS, VIRAL; EPILEPSY; HUMANS; MENINGITIS; PROGNOSIS; SEIZURES; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TUBERCULOSIS, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM;

EID: 79958276811     PISSN: 00121622     EISSN: 14698749     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.03928.x     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. World Health Organization. Epilepsy fact sheet no. 999 January 2009. (accessed 10 September 2010).
2. Bharucha NE, Carpio A, Gallo Diop A. Epidemiology of epilepsy in developing countries. In: Engel P, Pedley T, editors. Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Textbook. 2nd edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008: 89-101.
3. Banerjee PN, Hauser WA. Incidence and prevalence. In: Engel P, Pedley T, editors. Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Textbook. 2nd edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008: 45-56.
4. Carpio A, Hauser A. Epilepsy in the developing world. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2009; 9: 319-26.
5. Ziai WC, Lewin JJ. Update in the diagnosis and management of central nervous system infections. Neurol Clin 2008; 26: 47-68.
6. Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Beghi E, Nicolosi A, Kurland LT. The risk of unprovoked seizures after encephalitis and meningitis. Neurology 1988; 38: 1407-10.
7. Preux PM, Druet-Cabanac M. Epidemiology and etiology of epilepsy in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4: 21-31.
8. Newton CR. Status epilepticus in the resource poor countries. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (Suppl. 12): 54-5.
9. Sadarangani M, Seaton C, Scott JA, et al. Incidence and outcome of convulsive status epilepticus in Kenyan children: a cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7: 145-50.
10. Edwards T, Scott AG, Munyoki G, et al. Active convulsive epilepsy in a rural district of Kenya: a study of prevalence and possible risk factors. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7: 50-6.
11. Chin RF, Neville BG, Peckham C, et al. Incidence, cause, and short-term outcome of convulsive status epilepticus in childhood: prospective population-based study. Lancet 2006; 368: 222-9.
12. Munyoki G, Edwards T, White S, et al. Clinical and neurophysiologic features of active convulsive epilepsy in rural Kenya: a population-based study. Epilepsia 2010; 51: 2370-6.
13. World Health Organization. Emerging and other communicable diseases surveillance and control. WHO/CHD/98.6/WHO/EMC/BAC/98.2. (accessed 8 September 2010).
14. Singhi SC, Khetarpal R, Baranwal AK, Singhi PD. Intensive care needs of children with acute bacterial meningitis: a developing country perspective. Ann Trop Paediatr 2004; 24: 133-40.
15. Wang KW, Chang WN, Chang HW, et al. The significance of seizures and other predictive factors during the acute illness for the long-term outcome after bacterial meningitis. Seizure 2005; 14: 586-92.
16. Singhi P, Bansal A, Geeta P, Singhi S. Predictors of long term neurological outcome in bacterial meningitis. Indian J Pediatr 2007; 74: 369-74.
17. Chin RFM, Neville BGR, Scott RC. Meningitis is a common cause of convulsive status epilepticus with fever. Arch Dis Child 2005; 90: 66-9.
18. Murthy JM, Jayalaxmi SS, Kanikannan MA. Convulsive status epilepticus: clinical profile in a developing country. Epilepsia 2007; 48: 2217-23.
19. Singhi S, Singhi P, Baranwal AK. Bacterial meningitis in children: critical care needs. Indian J Pediatr 2001; 68: 737-47.
20. Chang CJ, Chang HW, Chang WN, et al. Seizures complicating infantile and childhood bacterial meningitis. Pediatr Neurol 2004; 31: 165-71.
21. Baraff LJ, Lee SI, Schriger DL. Outcomes of bacterial meningitis in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993; 12: 389-94.
22. Jit M. The risk of sequelae due to pneumococcal meningitis in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect 2010; 61: 114-24.
23. Bedford H, de Louvois J, Halket S, Peckham C, Hurley R, Harvey D. Meningitis in infancy in England and Wales: follow up at age 5years. BMJ 2001; 323: 533-6.
24. Stevens JP, Eames M, Kent A, Halket S, Holt D, Harvey D. Long term outcome of neonatal meningitis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003; 88: F179-84.
25. Edmond K, Clark A, Korczak VS, Sanderson C, Griffiths UK, Rudan I. Global and regional risk of disabling sequelae from bacterial meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10: 317-28.
26. World Health Organization. Tuberculosis factsheet (Nov 2010). (accessed 23 December 2010).
27. Van Well GT, Paes BF, Terwee CB, et al. Twenty years of pediatric tuberculous meningitis: a retrospective cohort study in the western cape of South Africa. Pediatrics 2009; 123: e1-8.
28. Granerod J, Crowcroft NS. The epidemiology of acute encephalitis. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2007; 17: 406-28.
29. Granerod J, Cunningham R, Zuckerman M, et al. Causality in acute encephalitis: defining aetiologies. Epidemiol Infect 2010; 138: 783-800.
30. Solomon T. Control of Japanese encephalitis - within our grasp? N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 869-71.
31. Ooi MH, Lewthwaite P, Lai BF, et al. The epidemiology, clinical features, and long-term prognosis of Japanese encephalitis in central Sarawak, Malaysia, 1997-2005. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 458-68.
32. Misra UK, Kalita J. Seizures in Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Sci 2001; 190: 57-60.
33. Elbers JM, Bitnun A, Richardson SE, et al. A 12-year prospective study of childhood herpes simplex encephalitis: is there a broader spectrum of disease? Pediatrics 2007; 119: 399-407.
34. Olival KJ, Daszak P. The ecology of emerging neurotropic viruses. J Neurovirol 2005; 11: 441-6.
35. Tyler KL. Emerging viral infections of the central nervous system: part 1. Arch Neurol 2009; 66: 939-48.
36. Theodore WH, Epstein L, Gaillard WD, Shinnar S, Wainwright MS, Jacobson S. Human herpes virus 6B: a possible role in epilepsy? Epilepsia 2008; 49: 1828-37.
37. Robin S, Ramful D, Le Seach F, Jaffar-Bandjee MC, Rigou G, Alessandri JL. Neurologic manifestations of pediatric chikungunya infection. J Child Neurol 2008; 23: 1028-35.
38. Lo MK, Rota PA. The emergence of nipah virus, a highly pathogenic paramyxovirus. J Clin Virol 2008; 43: 396-400.
39. Tan CT, Goh KJ, Wong KT, et al. Relapsed and late-onset nipah encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2002; 51: 703-8.
40. Tyler KL. Emerging viral infections of the central nervous system: part 2. Arch Neurol 2009; 66: 1065-74.
41. Jackson ST, Mullings A, Bennett F, Khan C, Gordon-Strachan G, Rhoden T. Dengue infection in patients presenting with neurological manifestations in a dengue endemic population. West Indian Med J 2008; 57: 373-6.
42. Misra UK, Kalita J, Syam UK, Dhole TN. Neurological manifestations of dengue virus infection. J Neurol Sci 2006; 244: 117-22.
43. Jacob John T. Chandipura virus - what we know and do not know. Indian J Med Res 2010; 132: 125-7.
44. Chen YJ, Fang PC, Chow JC. Clinical characteristics and prognostic factors of postencephalitic epilepsy in children. J Child Neurol 2006; 21: 1047-51.
45. World Health Organization. Global summary of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, December 2008. (accessed 27 August 2010).
46. Pillay K, Colvin M, Williams R, Coovadia HM. Impact of HIV-1 infection in South Africa. Arch Dis Child 2001; 85: 50-1.
47. Englund JA, Baker CJ, Raskino C, et al. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of a large cohort of symptomatic, human immunodeficiency virus-infected infants and children. AIDS clinical trials group protocol 152 study team. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996; 15: 1025-36.
48. Satishchandra P, Sinha S. Seizures in HIV-seropositive individuals: NIMHANS experience and review. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (Suppl. 6): 33-41.
49. Mintz M. Clinical comparison of adult and pediatric neuro AIDS. Adv Neuroimmunol 1994; 4: 207-21.
50. Gupta S, Shah DM, Shah I. Neurological disorders in HIV-infected children in India. Ann Trop Paediatr 2009; 29: 177-81.
51. Sagduyu A, Tarlaci S, Sirin H. Generalized tonic-clonic status epilepticus: causes, treatment, complications and predictors of case fatality. J Neurol 1998; 245: 640-6.
52. Lee KC, Garcia PA, Alldredge BK. Clinical features of status epilepticus in patients with HIV infection. Neurology 2005; 65: 314-6.
53. World Health Organization. World malaria report 2009. (accessed 24 August 2010).
54. Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature 2005; 434: 214-7.
55. Mishra SK, Newton CR. Diagnosis and management of the neurological complications of falciparum malaria. Nat Rev Neurol 2009; 5: 189-98.
56. Beales PF, Brabin B, Dorman E. et al. Severe falciparum malaria. WHO, Communicable Diseases Cluster. 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2000; 94 (Suppl. 1): S1-90.
57. Murphy SC, Breman JG. Gaps in the childhood malaria burden in Africa: cerebral malaria, neurological sequelae, anemia, respiratory distress, hypoglycaemia, and complications of pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001; 64 (Suppl. 1-2): 57-67.
58. Idro R, Ndiritu M, Ogutu B, et al. Burden, features, and outcome of neurological involvement in acute falciparum malaria in Kenyan children. JAMA 2007; 297: 2232-40.
59. Ngoungou EB, Preux PM. Cerebral malaria and epilepsy. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (Suppl. 6): 19-24.
60. Idro R, Marsh K, John CC, Newton CR. Cerebral malaria; mechanisms of brain injury and strategies for improved neuro-cognitive outcome. Pediatr Res 2010; 68: 267-74.
61. Crawley J, Smith S, Muthinji P, Marsh K, Kirkham F. Electroencephalographic and clinical features of cerebral malaria. Arch Dis Child 2001; 84: 247-53.
62. Carter JA, Neville BG, White S, et al. Increased prevalence of epilepsy associated with severe falciparum malaria in children. Epilepsia 2004; 45: 978-81.
63. Ngoungou EB, Dulac O, Poudiougou B, et al. Epilepsy as a consequence of cerebral malaria in an area in which malaria is endemic in Mali, West Africa. Epilepsia 2006; 47: 873-9.
64. Idro R, Carter JA, Fegan G, et al. Risk factors for persisting neurological and cognitive impairments following cerebral malaria. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91: 142-8.
65. Hotez PJ, Brindley PJ, Bethony JM, King CH, Pearce EJ, Jacobson J. Helminth infections: the great neglected tropical diseases. J Clin Invest 2008; 118: 1311-21.
66. Román G, Sotelo J, Del Brutto O, et al. A proposal to declare neurocysticercosis an international reportable disease. Bull World Health Organ 2000; 78: 399-406.
67. Singhi PD, Ray M, Singhi SC, Khandelwal N. Clinical spectrum of 500 children with neurocysticercosis and response to albendazole therapy. J Child Neurol 2000; 15: 207-13.
68. Montano SM, Villaran MV, Ylquimiche L, et al. Cysticercosis working group in Peru. Neurocysticercosis: association between seizures, serology, and brain CT in rural Peru. Neurology 2005; 65: 229-33.
69. Wagner RG, Newton CR. Do helminths cause epilepsy? Parasite Immunol 2009; 31: 697-705.
70. Ellis R, Langford D, Masliah E. HIV and antiretroviral therapy in the brain: neuronal injury and repair. Nat Rev Neurosci 2007; 8: 33-44.
71. Dunfee R, Thomas ER, Gorry PR, Wang J, Ancuta P, Gabuzda D. Mechanisms of HIV-1 neurotropism. Curr HIV Res 2006; 4: 267-78.
72. Stringer JL, Marks LM, White AC Jr, Robinson P. Epileptogenic activity of granulomas associated with murine cysticercosis. Exp Neurol 2003; 183: 532-6.
73. Schofield L, Grau GE. Immunological processes in malaria pathogenesis. Nat Rev Immunol 2005; 5: 722-35.
74. Jambou R, Combes V, Jambou MJ, Weksler BB, Couraud PO, Grau GE. Plasmodium falciparum adhesion on human brain microvascular endothelial cells involves transmigration-like cup formation and induces opening of intercellular junctions. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6: e1001021.
75. Bruzzone R, Dubois-Dalcq M, Grau GE, Griffin DE, Kristensson K. Infectious diseases of the nervous system and their impact in developing countries. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5: e1000199.
76. Choi J, Koh S. Role of brain inflammation in epileptogenesis. Yonsei Med J 2008; 49: 1-18.
77. Nash TE, Pretell EJ, Lescano AG, et al. Cysticercosis working group in Peru. Perilesional brain oedema and seizure activity in patients with calcified neurocysticercosis: a prospective cohort and nested case-control study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7: 1099-105.
78. Escobedo F, Penagos P, Rodriquez J, Sotelo J. Albendazole therapy for neurocysticercosis. Arch Intern Med 1987; 147: 738-41.
79. Baranwal AK, Singhi PD, Khandelwal N, Singhi SC. Albendazole therapy in children with focal seizures and single small enhancing computerized tomographic lesions: a randomized placebo-controlled double blind trial. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998; 17: 696-700.
80. Garcia HH, Pretell EJ, Gilman RH, et al. Cysticercosis working group in Peru. A trial of antiparasitic treatment to reduce the rate of seizures due to cerebral cysticercosis. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 249-58.
81. Del Brutto OH, Roos KL, Coffey CS, García HH. Meta analysis: cysticidal drugs for neurocysticercosis: albendazole and praziquantel. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145: 43-51.
82. Meremikwu M, Marson AG. Routine anticonvulsants for treating cerebral malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; 2: CD002152.
83. Van de Beek D, de Gans J, McIntyre P, Prasad K. Corticosteriods for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 1: CD004405.
84. Prasad K, Singh MB. Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 1: CD002244.
85. Warrell DA, Looareesuwan S, Warrell MJ, et al. Dexamethasone proves deleterious in cerebral malaria. A double-blind trial in 100 comatose patients. N Engl J Med 1982; 306: 313-9.
86. Singhi P, Jain V, Khandelwal N. Corticosteriods versus albendazole for treatment of single small enhancing computed tomographic lesions in children with neurocysticercosis. J Child Neurol 2004; 19: 323-7.
87. Garg RK, Potluri N, Kar AM, et al. Short course of prednisolone in patients with solitary cysticercus granuloma: a double-blind placebo controlled study. J Infect 2006; 53: 65-9.
88. Singhi PD, Dinakaran J, Khandelwal N, Singhi SC. One year versus two years antiepileptic therapy for children with single small enhancing CT lesion. Trop Pediatr 2003; 5: 274-8.
89. O'Brien TJ, Moses H, Cambier D, Cascino GD. Age of meningitis or encephalitis is independently predictive of outcome from anterior temporal lobectomy. Neurology 2002; 58: 104-9.
90. Baranwal AK, Singhi P, Singhi S, Khandelwal N. Seizure recurrence in children with focal seizures and single small enhancing computed tomographic lesions. Prognostic factors on long-term follow-up. J Child Neurol 2001; 16: 443-5.