Biodegradation of keratin waste: Theory and practical aspects

Waste Management

Volumn 31, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 1689-1701

  Korniłłowicz Kowalska, Teresa ^a   Bohacz, Justyna ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES IN LUBLIN   (Poland)

Author keywords

Keratin; Keratin waste management; Keratinolytic microorganisms

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL HEALTH; CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS; CHICKEN FEATHERS; ECOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT; KERATIN; KERATIN WASTE MANAGEMENT; KERATINOLYTIC MICROORGANISMS; MICROSCOPIC FUNGI;

AMINO ACIDS; ANIMALS; BIODEGRADATION; COMPOSTING; DEGRADATION; ECOLOGY; MICROORGANISMS; VETERINARY MEDICINE;

WASTE MANAGEMENT;

FERTILIZER; KERATIN;

BACTERIUM; BIODEGRADATION; BIOTECHNOLOGY; BIOTRANSFORMATION; COMPOST; FUNGUS; MICROORGANISM; PROTEIN; WASTE MANAGEMENT;

ANIMAL FOOD; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BIODEGRADATION; BIOTECHNOLOGY; BIOTRANSFORMATION; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; COMPOST; CONTROLLED STUDY; FUNGUS; KERATINOLYTIC BACTERIA; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; REVIEW; SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT;

ANIMALS; BIODEGRADATION, ENVIRONMENTAL; KERATINS; MICROBIOLOGICAL PROCESSES; PEPTIDE HYDROLASES; SOIL; WASTE MANAGEMENT;

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); FUNGI;

EID: 79958270191     PISSN: 0956053X     EISSN: 18792456     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.024     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. Akhatar W., Edwards H.G.M. Fourier-transform Raman spectroscopy of mammalian and avian keratotic biopolymers. Spectocim. Acta A 1997, 53:81-90.
2. Aluigi A., Vineis C., Varesano A., Mazzuchetti G., Ferrero F., Tonin C. Structure and properties of keratin/PEO blend nanofibres. Euro. Polym. J. 2008, 44:2465-2475.
3. Apodaca G., McKerrow J.H. Purification and characterization of a 27,000-Mr extracellular proteinase from Trichophyton rubrum. Infect. Immun. 1989, 57:3072-3080.
4. Apodaca G., McKerrow J.H. Expression of proteolytic activity by cultures of Trichophyton rubrum. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 1990, 28:159-171.
5. Asahi M.R., Lindquist K., Fukuyama G., Apocarda W., Epstein W.L., Mc Kerrow J.H. Purification and characterization of major extracellular proteinases from Trichophyton rubrum. Biochem. J. 1985, 232:139-144.
6. Bar, M., 2001. New legal regulations in organic waste management and EU regulations. In: Conference proceedings waste composting: a profitable business or a nuisance? Osieczany near Kraków, 19-21 September, (in Polish). http://www.tnz.most.org.pl/kompost/spis.htm.
7. Battelli G., Banched M., Frigo W., Amorati P., Mantovani A., Pegli A. Survey of keratinophilic fungi alpine marmot (Marmota marmota) burrow soil in adjoining soil. Sabouraudia 1978, 16:83-86.
8. Bertoldi M., de Vallini G., Pera A. The biology of composting: a review. Waste Manag. Res. 1983, 1:157-176.
9. Bertsch A., Coello N. A biotechnological process for treatment and recycling poultry feathers as a feed ingredient. Biores. Technol. 2005, 95:1703-1708.
10. Böckle B., Galunsky B., Muller R. Characterization of keratinolytic serine protease from Streptomyces pactum DSM 40530. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1995, 61:3705-3710.
11. Bohacz J., Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Influence of keratin-bark and keratin-bark-straw composts on properties of selected soils. Part I. Biochemical properties. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 2005, 505:55-64. (in Polish).
12. Bohacz J., Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Influence of keratin-bark and keratin-bark-straw composts on properties of selected soils. Part II. Chemical properties. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 2005, 505:55-64. (in Polish).
13. Bohacz J., Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Choice of maturity indexes for feathers-plant material composts on a base of selected microbiological and chemical parameters-preliminary research. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2007, 16(2A):719-725.
14. Bohacz J., Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Changes in enzymatic activity in composts containing chicken feathers. Biores. Technol. 2009, 100:3604-3612.
15. Bohacz J., Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Nitrogen and sulfur transformations in composts containing chicken feathers. Comput. Sci. Util. 2009, 17:180-188.
16. Bolliger A. Water extractable constituents of hair. J. Investigat. Dermatol. 1951, 11:79-84.
17. Brandelli A., Daroit D.J., Riffel A. Biochemical features of microbial keratinases and their production and applications. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2010, 85:1735-1750.
18. Bressollier P., Letourneau F., Urdaci M., Verneuil B. Purification and characterization of a keratinolytic serine proteinase from Streptomyces albidoflavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1999, 65:2570-2576.
19. Brouta F., Descamps F., Fett T., Losson B., Gerday Ch., Mignon B. Purification and characterization a 43.5kDa keratinolytic metalloprotease from Microsporum canis. Med. Mycol. 2001, 39:269-275.
20. Burtt E.H., Ichida J.M. Occurrence of feather- degrading Bacilli in the plumage of birds. The Auk 1999, 116:364-372.
21. Cameron G.J., Wess T.J., Bonser R.H.C. Young's modulus varies with differential orientation of keratin in feathers. J. Struct. Biol. 2003, 143:118-123.
22. Caretta G., Piontelli E. Isolation of keratinophilic fungi from soil Pavia Italy. Sabouraudia 1975, 13:33-37.
23. Caretta G., Mangiarotti A.M., Piontelli E. Keratinophilic fungi isolated from soil of Italian parks in the province of Pavia. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 1992, 8:330-339.
24. Chattaway F.W., Ellis D.A., Barlow A.J.E. Peptidases of dermatophytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1963, 43:31-37.
25. Chesters C.G.C., Mathison G.E. The decomposition of wool keratin by Keratinomyces ajelloi. Sabouraudia 1963, 2:225-237.
26. Chitte R.R., Nalawade V.K., Dey S. Keratinolytic activity from the broth of a feather-degrading thermophilic Streptomyces thermoviolaceus strain SD8. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 1999, 28:131-136.
27. Chmel L., Vláčiliková A. Keratinophilne huby v niektorych pochodnych typoch a factory ovplyvnujece ich zastupenie. Biologia (Bratislava) 1977, 32:53-59.
28. Chmel L., Hasilíková B., Hrašco J., Vlačiková A. The influence of some ecological factors on keratinophilic fungi in the soil. Sabouraudia 1972, 10:26-34.
29. Coward-Kelly G., Chang V.S., Agbogbo F.K., Holtzapple M.T. Lime treatment of keratinous materials for the generation of highly digestible animal feed: Chicken feathers. Biores. Technol. 2006, 97:1337-1343.
30. Currah R.S. Taxonomy of the onygenales: arthodermataceae, gymnoasceae, myxotrichaceae and onygenaceae. Mycotaxon 1985, 24:1-216.
31. Dalev G.P. Utilisation of waste feathers from poultry slaughter for production of a protein concentrate. Biores. Technol. 1994, 48:265-267.
32. Dalev, P., Ljubomirova, A., Simeonova, L., Ivanov, I., 1996. Protein hydrolysates from waste feathers for feed and their enrichment with lysine through enzyme catalyzed covalent binding. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Univ. Gent. 61/4a.
33. Dalev P., Ivanov I., Liubomirova A. Enzymic modification of feather keratin hydrolysates with lysine aimed at increasing the biological value. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1997, 73:242-244.
34. Debicki R., Rejman J., Wontroba J. Effect of keratin-bark-urea granulate on the physico-chemical properties of soils. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1989, 370:39-48. (in Polish).
35. Dechnik I., Wiater J. Effect of fertilization with various organic materials on the chemical composition of rye during the tillering and flowering phases. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1989, 370:119-128. (in Polish).
36. Descamps F., Brouta F., Vermout S., Monod M., Losson B., Mignon B. Recombinant expression and antigenic properties of a 31.5-kDa keratinolytic subtilisin-like serine protease from Microsporum canis. FEMS Immun. Med. Microbiol. 2003, 38:29-34.
37. Dozie I.N.S., Okeke C.N., Unaeze N.C. A thermostable, alkaline-active, keratinolytic proteinase from Chrysosporium keratinophilum. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1994, 10:563-567.
38. Elmayergi H.H., Smith R.E. Influence of growth of Streptomyces fradiae on pepsin-HCl digestibility and methionine content of feather meal. Can. J. Microbiol. 1971, 17:1067-1072.
39. English M.P. The saprophytic growth of keratinophilic fungi on keratin. Sabouraudia 1963, 2:115-130.
40. English M.P. The saprotrophytic growth of non-keratinophilic fungi on keratinized substrata, and a comparison with keratinophilic fungi. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 1965, 48:219-235.
41. English M.P. Destruction of hair by Chrysosporium keratinophilum. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 1969, 52:247-255.
42. English M.P. Destruction of hair by two species of Chrysosporium. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 1976, 66:357-358.
43. Farag A.M., Hassan M.A. Purification, characterization and immobilization of a keratinase from Aspergillus oryzae. Enz. Microb. Technol. 2004, 34:85-93.
44. Filipello Marchisio, V., 2000. Karatinophilic fungi: their role in nature and degradation of keratinic substrates. In: Kushawaha, R.K.S., Guarro, J. (Eds.), Biology of dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi. Rev. Iber. Micol., 17, 86-92.
45. Filipello Marchisio V., Fusconi A., Rigo S. Keratinolysis and its morphological expression in hair digestion by airborne fungi. Mycopathologia 1994, 127:103-115.
46. Filipello Marchisio V., Fusconi A., Querio F.L. Scopulariopsis brevicaulis: a keratinophilic or a keratinolytic fungus?. Mycoses 2000, 43:281-292.
47. Fraser R.D.B., Parry D.A.D. Macrofibril assembly in trichocyte (hard α-) keratins. J. Struct. Biol. 2003, 142:319-325.
48. Fraser R.B.D., Mac Rae T.P., Rogers G.E. Keratins- their Composition, Structure and Biosynthesis 1972, Charles C. Thomas, Illinois, 283.
49. Frazer L. Chicken electronics. A technology plucked from waste. Environ. Health Persp. 2004, 112:565-567.
50. Friedrich A.B., Antranikian G. Keratin degradation by Fervidobacterium pennavorans a novel thermophilic anaerobic species of the order Termotogales. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1996, 62:2875-2882.
51. Galas E., Kałuzewska M. Proteinases of Streptomyces fradiae III. Catalytic and some physic-chemical properties of keratynolytic proteinase. Acta Microbiol. Polon. 1992, 41:169-177.
52. Garg A.P., Gandotra S., Mukerji K.G., Pugh G.J.F. Ecology of keratinophilic fungi. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 1985, 94:149-163.
53. Gessesse A., Hatti-Kaul R., Gashe B.A., Mattiasson B. Novel alkaline proteases from alkaliphilic bacteria grown on chicken feather. Enz. Microbial. Technol. 2003, 32:519-524.
54. Gostkowska K., Woytowicz B., Szember A., Furczak J., Jezierska-Tys S., Jaśkiewicz W. Effect of various fertilizers on the microbiological activity of sandy soil. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1989, 370:75-84. (in Polish).
55. Gousterova A., Braikova D., Goshev I., Christov P., Tishinov K., Vasileva-Tonkova E., Haertlé T., Nedkov P. Degradation of keratin and collagen containing wastes by newly isolated thermoactinomycetes or by alkaline hydrolysis. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2005, 40:335-340.
56. Gradisar H., Kern S., Friedrich J. Keratinase of Doratomyces microsporus. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2000, 53:196-200.
57. Grazziotin A., Pimentel F.A., Jong de E.V., Brandelli A. Nutritional improvement of feather protein by treatment with microbial keratinase. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2006, 126:135-144.
58. Griffin D.M. Fungal colonization of sterile hair in contact with soil. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 1960, 43:583-596.
59. Grzywnowicz G., Lobarzewski J., Wawrzkiewicz K., Wolski T. Comparative characterization of proteolytic enzymes from Trichophyton gallinae and Trichophyton verrucosum. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 1989, 27:319-328.
60. Gupta R., Ramnani P. Microbial keratinases and their prospective applications: an overview. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2006, 70:21-33.
61. Han X., Damodaran S. Purification and characterization of protease Q: A detergent-and stable serine endopeptidase from Bacillus pumilus. J. Agaric. Food Chem. 1998, 46:3596-3603.
62. Hayashi N., Toshitani S. Human infections with Microsporum gypseum in Japan. Mycosen 1983, 26:337-345.
63. Hill P., Brantley H., Dyke M.V. Some properties of keratin biomaterials: Kerateines. Biomaterials 2010, 31:585-593.
64. Hose H., Evans G. Degradation of native keratin by dermatophytes. J. Invest Dermatol. 1977, 68:245-246.
65. Hsu Y.C., Volz P.A. Penetration of Trichophyton terrestre in human hair. Mycopathol. 1975, 55:179-183.
66. Hubálek Z. Fungi associated with free-living birds in Czechoslovakia and Yuogoslavia. Acta Sci. Nat. Brno. 1974, 8:1-62.
67. Hubálek, Z., 2000. Keratinophilic fungi associated with free-living mammals and birds. In: Kushawaha, R.K.S., Guarro, J. (Eds.), Biology of dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi. Rev. Iber. Micol. 17, 86-92.
68. Hubálek Z., Balát F. The survival of microfungi in the nests of tree-sparrow [Passer montanus L.] in the nest-boxes over the winter season. Mycopathol. Mycol. Applicat. 1974, 54:517-530.
69. Hussein, M.M., Swelin, M., 1987. Bioconversion of chicken feather into soluble nitrogenous product. Microbe-86. Int. Congr. Microbiol. 14 Meet.: 85.
70. Ichida J.M., Krizova L., Lefevre C.A., Keener H.M., Elwell D.L., Burtt E.H. Bacterial inoculum enhances keratin degradation and biofilm formation in poultry compost. J. Microbiol. Methods 2001, 47:199-208.
71. Iwegbue C.M.A., Egun A.C., Emuh F.N., Isirimah N.O. Compost maturity evaluation and its significance to agriculture. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 2006, 9:2933-2944.
72. Jeske J., Doruchowski W., Wcisło H. The assessment of by-product management in the poultry industry. Food Industry 1976, 30:255-257. (in Polish).
73. Jiang Z.H., Steinsberger C., Shih J.C.H. In situ utilization of biogas on a poultry farm: heating, drying and animal brooding. Biomass 1987, 14:269-281.
74. Jimenez E.I., Garcia V.P. Evaluation of city refuse compost maturity: a review. Biol. Wastes 1989, 27:115-142.
75. Jones L.N. Hair structure anatomy and comparative anatomy. Clin. Dermatol. 2001, 19:95-103.
76. Kaul S., Sumbali G. Production of extracellular keratinases by keratinophilic fungal species inhabiting feathers of living poultry birds (Gallus domesticus): a comparison. Mycopathology 1999, 146(1):19-24.
77. Khardenavis A.A., Kapley A., Purohit H.J. Processing of poultry feathers by alkaline keratin hydrolyzing enzyme from Serratia sp. HPC 1383. Waste Manag. 2009, 29:1409-1415.
78. Kim J.M., Lim W.J., Suh H.J. Feather-degrading Bacillus species from poultry waste. Process Biochem. 2001, 37:287-291.
79. Kjøller A., Struwe S. Microfungi in ecosystems: fungal occurrence and activity in litter and soil. Oikos 1982, 39:389-422.
80. Korniłłowicz, T., 1991/1992. Investigations into the microflora colonizing raw keratin waste in the soil. Acta Mycol. 27, 231-245 (in Polish).
81. Korniłłowicz T. Methods for determing keratinolytic activity of saprophytic fungi. Acta Mycol. 1994, 29:169-178.
82. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Studies on the decomposition of keratin wastes by saprotrophic microfungi. P.I. Criteria for evaluating keratinolytic activity. Acta Mycol. 1997, 32:51-79.
83. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Studies on the decomposition of keratin wastes by saprotrophic microfungi. II. Sulfur and nitrogen balance. Acta Mycol. 1997, 32:81-93.
84. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Studies on the decomposition of keratin waste by saprotrophic microfungi. III. Activity and properties of keratinolytic enzymes. Acta Mycol. 1999, 34:65-78.
85. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T. Optimalisation in the conditions of feathers decomposition in fungi cultures. Acta Agrophys. 2002, 73:175-187. (in Polish).
86. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T., Bohacz J. Some correlations between the occurrence frequency of keratinophilic fungi and selected soil properties. Acta Mycol. 2002, 37:101-116.
87. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T., Bohacz J. An attempt at composting feather waste using fungi inoculum. III. Evaluation of the phytosanitary condition. Acta Agroph. 2002, 73:199-212. (in Polish).
88. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T., Bohacz J. Dynamics of growth and succession of bacterial and fungal communities during composting of feather waste. Biores. Technol. 2010, 101:1268-1276.
89. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T., Kitowski I. Diversity of fungi in nests and pellets of montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) from eastern Poland-importance of chemical and ecological factors. Ecol. Chem. Eng. S 2009, 16:453-471.
90. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska, T., Kitowski, I., Iglik, H., 2011. Geophilic dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi in the nests of wetland birds. Acta Mycol. 46, 1 (in press).
91. Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T., Ziaja J. Influence of glucose on feather wastes mineralization by saprophytic keratinolytic fungi. Fol. Univ. Agaric. Stetin. 200 Agric. 1999, 77:167-172.
92. Kunert J. Thiosulphate esters in keratin attacked by dermatophytes in vitro. Sabouraudia 1972, 10:6-13.
93. Kunert J. Keratin decomposition by dermatophytes: evidence of the sulphitolysis of the protein. Experientia 1972, 28:1025-1026.
94. Kunert J. Keratin decomposition by dermatophytes. 1: sulfite production as a possible way of substrate denaturation. Zeitschrift für Allg. Mikrobiologie 1973, 13:489-498.
95. Kunert J. Keratin decomposition by dermatophytes. II: presence of S-sulfocysteine and cysteic acid in soluble decomposition products. Zeitschrift für Allg. Mikrobiologie 1976, 16:97-105.
96. Kunert J. Biochemical mechanisms of keratin degradation by actinomycete Streptomyces fradiae and fungus Microsporum gypseum, a comparison. J. Basic Microbiol. 1989, 29:597-604.
97. Kunert, J., 2000. Physiology of keratinophilic fungi. In: Kushawaha, R.K.S., Guarro, J. (Eds.), Biology of dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi. Rev. Iber. Micol. 17, 77-85.
98. Kunert J., Krajci D. An electron microscopy study of keratin degradation by the fungus Microsporum gypseum in vitro. Mycosen 1975, 24:485-496.
99. Küster E., Sofwat M.S.A. Studies on the composting of feathers. Zbl. Bakt. II. Abt. Bd. 1978, 133(Suppl.):385-393.
100. Lal S., Rajak R., Hasijia C. In vitro degradation of keratin by two species of Bacillus. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 1999, 45:283-287.
101. Lee D.L., Baden H.P. Chemistry and composition of the keratins. J. Dermatol. 1975, 14:161-171.
102. Letourneau F., Soussotte V., Bressollier P., Branland P., Verneuil B. Keratinolytic activity of Streptomyces sp. S.K.1-02: a new isolated strain. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 1998, 26:77-80.
103. Lin X., Lee C.G., Casale E.S., Shih J.C.H. Purification and characterization of a keratinase from a feather-degrading Bacillus licheniformis strain. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1992, 58:3271-3275.
104. Lin X., Inglis G.D., Yanke L.J., Cheng K.J. Selection and characterization of feather-degrading bacteria from canola meal compost. J. Industr. Microbiol. Biotech. 1999, 23:149-153.
105. Łobarzewski J., Grzywnowicz K., Wawrzkiewicz K., Staszczak M., Wolski T. Feather keratin as a ligand in an affinity chromatographic technique for isolation of protease from Trichophyton verrucosum. J. Chromatogr. 1990, 520:223-235.
106. Malvija H.K., Hasija S.K., Rajak R.C. In vitro utilization of L-cystine by keratinophilic fungi inhabiting a gelatin factory. Mycopathology 1992, 188:147-152.
107. Marcantini R., Marsella F., Caprilli F., Dovgiallo G. Isolation of dermatophytes and correlated species from the soil of public gardens and park of Roma. Sabouraudia 1980, 18:123-128.
108. Martin S.M., So V. Solubilization of autoclaved feathers and wool by myxobacteria. Can. J. Microbiol. 1979, 15:1393-1397.
109. Mathur S.P., Owen G., Dinel H., Schnitzer M. Determination of compost biomaturity. I: literature review. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 1993, 10:65-85.
110. Matsui T., Yamanda Y., Mitsuya H., Shigeri Y., Yoshida Y., Saito Y., Matsui H., Watanabe K. Sustainable and practical degradation of intact chicken feathers by cultivating a newly isolated thermophilic Meiothermus ruber H328. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2009, 82:941-950.
111. Mc Govern V. More bang for the cluck. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108:366-369.
112. Meevootison V., Niederpruem D.J. Control of exocellular proteases in dermatophytes and especially Trichophyton rubrum. Sabouraudia 1979, 17:91-106.
113. Mercer E.H. The fine structure keratin. Textile Res. J. 1958, 28:860-866.
114. Miller, F.C., 1993. Composting as a process based on the control of ecologically selective factors. In: Metting F.B. Jr. (Ed.), Soil Microbial Ecology, Dekker, New York, pp. 515-545.
115. Nam G.-W., Lee D.-W., Lee H.S., Lee N.J., Kim B.C., Choe E.A., Hwang J.K., Suhartono M.T., Pyun Y.R. Native-feather degradation by Fervidobacterium islandicum AW-1, a newly isolated keratinase-producing thermophilic anaerobe. Arch. Microbiol. 2002, 178:538-547.
116. Nickerson W.J., Durand S.C. Keratinase II. Properties of the crystalline enzyme. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1963, 77:87-99.
117. Nickerson W.J., Noval J.J., Robison R.S. Keratinase I. Properties of the enzyme conjugate elaborated by Streptomyces fradiae. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1963, 77:73-79.
118. Nooruddin M., Singh B. Prevalence of dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi in soil and dried dung of the premises of buffalo sheds. Mycoses 1987, 30:589-593.
119. Noval J.J., Nickerson W.J. Decomposition of native keratin by Streptomyces fradiae. J. Bacteriol. 1959, 77:251-259.
120. Nurzyński J. The usability of keratin-bark-urea granulates in fertilizing greenhouse tomatoes. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1989, 370:237-243. (in Polish).
121. Offidani A., Simoncini C., Arzeni D., Cellini A., Amerio P., Scalise G. Tinea capitis due to Microsporum gypseum in an adult. Mycoses 1998, 41:239-241.
122. Oorschot van C.A.N. A revision of Chrysosporium and allied genera. Stud. Mycol. 1980, 20:1-89.
123. Orzeszko G., Sutarzewicz D. Bristle utilization. Meat Manag. 1979, 48:51.
124. Page W.J., Stock J.J. Phosphate-mediated alternation of the Microsporum gypseum germination protease specificity for substrate enhanced keratinase activity. J. Bacteriol. 1974, 117:422-431.
125. Papadopoulos M.C. Processed chicken feathers as feedstuff for poultry and swine: a review. Agric. Wastes 1985, 14:275-290.
126. Papadopoulos M.C., El Boushy A.R., Roodbeen A.E., Ketelaars E.H. Effects of processing time and moisture content on amino acid composition and nitrogen characteristics of feather meal. Animal Feed Sci. Technol 1986, 14:279-290.
127. Park G.T., Son H.J. Keratinolytic activity of Bacillus megaterium F7-1, a feather-degrading mesophilic bacterium. Microbiol. Res. 2009, 164:478-485.
128. Parr, J.F., Hornic, B., 1993. Utilization of municipal wastes. In: Metting, F.B. Jr. (Ed.), Soil microbial ecology: applications in agricultural and environmental management. Dekker, New York, pp. 545-559.
129. Pawłowski F., Wesołowski M., Styk B. The usability of keratin-bark-urea granulates in weeding grains and Brassica napus var. Arvensis f. annua. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1989, 370:217-228. (in Polish).
130. Pinowski J., Pinowska B., Haman A. Fungi in bird's plumage and nests (review article). Abstract Dept. Vertebrate Ecology. Intern. Stud. Sparrows 1999, 26:3-28.
131. Poopathi S., Abidha S. Biodegradation of poultry waste for the production of mosquitocidal toxins. Inter. Biodeter. Biodegrad. 2008, 62:479-482.
132. Pugh G.J.F. Cellulolytic and keratinophilic fungi recorded on birds. Sabouraudia 1965, 4:85-91.
133. Pugh G.J.F., Evans M.D. Keratinophilic fungi associated with birds. I: fungi isolated from feathers nests and soil. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 1970, 54:233-240.
134. Raju K.C., Neogi U., Saumya R., Goud N.R. Studies on extra cellular enzyme keratinase from dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum. Inter. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 1:174-178.
135. Raubitschek F. Mechanical versus chemical keratolysis by dermatophyes. Sabouraudia 1961, 1:87.
136. Rees R.G. Keratinophilic fungi from Queesland II. Isolation from animal hair and scales. Sabouraudia 1967, 5:165-172.
137. Rodziewicz A., Łaba W. Keratins and their biodegradation. Biotechnology 2006, 2:130-147. (in Polish).
138. Ruffin P., Andrieu S., Biserte G., Biguet J. Sulphitolysis in keratinolysis. Biochemical proof. Sabouraudia 1976, 14:181-184.
139. Safranek W.W., Goos R.D. Degradation of wool by saprotrophic fungi. Can. J. Microbiol. 1982, 28:137-140.
140. Sangali S., Brandelli A. Isolation and characterization of a novel feather-degrading bacterial strain. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2000, 87:17-24.
141. Santos R.M.D.B., Firmino A.A.P., de Sá C.M., Felix C.R. Keratinolytic activity of Aspergillus fumigatus Fresenius. Current Microbiol. 1996, 33:364-370.
142. Sanyal A.K., Das S.K., Banerjee A.B. Purification and partial characterization of an exocellular proteinase from Trichophyton rubrum. Sabouraudia 1985, 23:165-178.
143. Shih J.C.H. Recent development in poultry waste and feather utilization - a review. Poultry Sci. 1993, 72:1617-1620.
144. Styk B. Response of wheat and barley to fertilization with keratin-bark-urea granulate. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1989, 370:179-197. (in Polish).
145. Suh H.J., Lee H.K. Characterization of a keratinolytic serine protease from Bacillus subtilis KS-1. J. Protein Chem. 2001, 20:165-169.
146. Suntornsuk W., Suntornsuk L. Feather degradation by Bacillus sp. FK46 in submergaded cultivation. Biores. Technol. 2003, 86:239-243.
147. Syed D.G., Lee J.C., Li W.-J., Kim C.-J., Agasar D. Production, characterization and application of keratinase from Streptomyces gulbargensis. Biores. Technol. 2009, 100:1868-1871.
148. Takiuchi J., Higuchi D., Sei Y., Koga M. Isolation of an extracellular proteinase (keratinase) from Microsporum canis. Sabouraudia 1982, 20:281-288.
149. Takiuchi I., Higuchi D., Yoshihiro S., Koga M. Immunological studies of an extra-cellular keratinase. J. Dermatol. 1983, 10:327-330.
150. Takiuchi I., Sci Y., Tagagi H., Negi M. Partial characterization of the extracelluralar keratinase from Microsporum canis. Sabouraudia 1984, 22:219-224.
151. Tiquia S.M. Microbiological parameters as indicators of compost maturity. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2005, 99:816-828.
152. Tiquia S.M., Ichida J.M., Keener H.M., Elwell D.L., Burtt E.H., Michel F.C. Bacterial community profiles on feathers during composting as determined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of 16S rDNA genes. Environ. Biotechnol. 2005, 67:412-419.
153. Tsuboi R., Ko I.J., Matsuda K., Ogawa H. A new keratinolytic proteinase from clinical isolates of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. J. Dermatol. 1987, 14:506-508.
154. Ulfig, K., 2000. The occurrence of keratinolytic fungi in waste and waste contaminated habitats. In: Kushawaha, R.K.S., Guarro, J. (Eds.), Biology of dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi. Rev. Iber. Micol. 17, 44-50.
155. Ulfig K., Korcz M. Isolation of keratinolytic fungi from sewage sludge. Sabouraudia 1983, 21:247-250.
156. Ulfig K., Korcz M. Keratinolytic fungi in sewage sludge applied to devastated urban soil. A preliminary experiment. Inter. J. Environ. Health Res. 1994, 4:244-253.
157. Ulfig K., Ulfig A. Keratinophilic fungi in bottom sediments of surface waters. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 1990, 28:419-422.
158. Ulfig K., Łukasik W., Płaza G. Further statistical evaluation of the occurrence of keratinolytic fungi in dam sediments. Inter. J. Environ. Health Res. 1996, 6:39-47.
159. Vasileva-Tonkova E., Gousterova A., Neshev G. Ecologically safe method for improved feather wastes biodegradation. Inter. Biodeter. Bioderad. 2009, 63:1008-1012.
160. Vollenková A. Microsporum persicolor a ine keratinofilne huby v pode v nore hladovcov. Biologia (Bratislava) 1984, 39:899-904.
161. Vries de G.A. Keratinophilic fungi and their action. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1962, 28:122-133.
162. Wang J.J., Shih J.C.H. Fermentation production of keratinase from Bacillus licheniformis PWD-1 and B. subtilis FDB-29. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1999, 22:608-616.
163. Wawrzkiewicz K., Łobarzewski J., Wolski T. Intracellular keratinase of Trichophyton gallinae. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 1987, 25:261-268.
164. Williams C.M., Shih J.C.H. Enumeration of some microbial groups in termophilic poultry waste digestors and enrichment of a feather-degrading culture. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1989, 67:25-35.
165. Williams C.M., Richter C.S., MacKenzie J.M., Shih J.C.H. Isolation, identification and characterization of a feather-degrading bacterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1990, 56:1509-1515.
166. Williams C.M., Lee C.G., Garlich J.D., Shih J.C.H. Evaluation of a bacterial feather fermentation product, feather-lysate as a feed protein. Poult. Sci. 1991, 70:85-94.
167. Wojtowicz A., Mościcki L. The American method of the utilization of production waste of animal origin. Industrial Feeds 1998, 4:17-18. (in Polish).
168. Wolski T. Urea granulates obtained from feathers for use in feeds. Food Industry 1979, 33:302-303. (in Polish).
169. Wolski, T., 1985. Modified keratin proteins, their physicochemical properties, analysis and application. DSc Dissertation. Medical Academy, Lublin, Poland (in Polish).
170. Wolski T., Orlikowski L.B., Gliński J. The use of processed lignino-cellulose and keratin waste in plant protection. Prob. Notes Adv. Agric. Sci. 1996, 437:359-364.
171. Yamamura S., Morita Y., Hasan Q., Yokoyama K., Tamiya E. Keratin degradation: a cooperative action of two enzymes from Stenotrophomonas sp. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2002, 294:1138-1143.
172. Yu R.J., Harmon S.R., Blank F. Isolation and purification of an extracellular keratinase of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. J. Bacteriol. 1968, 96:1435-1436.
173. Yu R.J., Harmon S.R., Blank F. Hair digestion by keratinase of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1969, 53:166-171.
174. Yu R.J., Harmon S.R., Grappel S.F., Blank F. Two cell bound keratinase of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1971, 56:27-32.
175. Yu R.J., Harmon S.R., Grappel S.F., Blank F. Keratinases. Hydrolysis keratinous substrates three enzymes of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Experientia 1972, 28:1512-1513.