The Global Grapevine: Why Rumors of Terrorism, Immigration, and Trade Matter

The Global Grapevine: Why Rumors of Terrorism, Immigration, and Trade Matter

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-272

  Fine, Gary Alan ^a   Ellis, Bill ^b  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Conspiracy; Immigration; International trade; Internationalism; Legend; Rumor; Stereotype; Terrorism; Tourism

Indexed keywords

EID: 79958037074     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199736317.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (387)

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2. John Hewitt and Peter Hall, "Social Problems, Problematic Situations, and Quasi-Theories," American Sociological Review 38 (1973): 367-374.
3. Gary Alan Fine and Patricia Turner, Whispers on the Color Line: Rumor and Race in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 74. We draw on this analysis for the material in this section.
4. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), 98-99.
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6. Marvin Scott and Stanford Lyman, "Accounts," American Sociological Review 33 (1968): 46-62.
7. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "From Evil Others to Evil Elites: A Dominant Pattern in Conspiracy Theories Today," pp. 103-122 in Rumor Mills: The Social Impact of Rumor and Legend, ed. Gary Alan Fine, Véronique Campion-Vincent, and Chip Heath (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2005), 107.
8. David Bromley, "The Social Construction of Subversion: A Comparison of Anti-Religious and Anti-Semitic Cult Narratives," pp. 49-69, in Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Anson Shupe and David Bromley (New York: Garland, 1994), 55-61.
9. Campion-Vincent, "From Evil Others to Evil Elites," 105.
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11. Ted Goertzel, "Belief in Conspiracy Theories," Political Psychology 15 (1994): 731-742;
12. Carl F. Graumann, Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987);
13. Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays (New York: Knopf, 1965);
14. Robert Robins and Jarrold Post, Political Paranoia: The Psychopolitics of Hatred (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997).
15. Campion-Vincent, "From Evil Others to Evil Elites," 115-117.
16. Patricia Turner, I Heard It through the Grapevine: Rumor in African-American Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
17. "Fare Whether Friend," http://www.snopes.com/rumors/taxi.htm (accessed December 19, 2005).
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21. Judith Schoolman, "Probe of Wild Market Swings in Terror-Tied Stocks," New York Daily News, September 20, 2001, 6.
22. "International Probe of Unusual Trading before Attacks," http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm-id=675 (accessed May 17, 2006).
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25. Arthur Wailer, "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the 21st Century," http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/essays&editorials/protocols.html (accessed May 9, 2009).
26. See Bill Ellis, Raising the Devil: Satanism, New Religions, and the Media (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2000), 120-142.
27. Nesta Webster, World Revolution: The Plot against Civilization (London: Constable and Company, 1921), 305-306.
28. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, vol. 1 (München: Zentralverlag der N.S.D.A.P. Franz Eher Nachf., G.M.B.H., 1935), chap.XI, 307-308 (Mannheim translation).
29. "The 4,000 Jews Rumor," http://usinfo.state.gov/media/Archive/2005/Jan/14-269033.html (accessed December 7, 2005).
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32. Brian McWilliams, "Instant Messages to Israel Warned of WTC Attack," http://web.archive.org/web/20011005221245/http://www.newsbytes.com/news/01/170583.html (accessed May 16, 2006).
33. Neil Mackay, "Five Israelis Were Seen Filming as Jet Liners Ploughed into the Twin Towers on September 11, 2001," http://www.sundayherald.com/37707 (accessed May 16, 2006).
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35. Thierry Meyssan, Pentagate (London: Carnot, 2002).
36. "FEMA Was in New York the Night Before 9/11," http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/fematape.html (accessed May 17, 2006).
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40. "Does Osama bin Laden Own Snapple?" http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/blsnapple.htm (accessed December 19, 2005).
41. See "Snapple Rumor," http://www.snopes.com/rumors/snapple.htm (accessed December 19, 2005);
42. "Citibank Rumor," http://www.snopes.com/rumors/citibank.htm (accessed December 19, 2005).
43. John Barry, "Too Good to Check," Newsweek, June 26, 1995, 33.
44. Donald Joralemon, "Organ Wars: The Battle for Body Parts," Medical Anthropology Quarterly, New Series, 9, no. 3 (September 1995): 335-356, http://links.jstor.org/sici? sici=0745-5194%28199509%292%3A9%3A3%3C335%3AOWTBFB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0.
45. David Schreiberg, "Dead Babies," New Republic, December 24, 1990, 12-13, p. 12.
46. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Baby Train and Other Lusty Urban Legends (New York:Norton, 1993), 149.
47. Danusha Goska, "'Waking up Less than Whole': The Female Perpetrator in Male-Victim Kidney Theft Legends," Southern Folklore 54 (1997): 196-210, p. 199.
48. Jan Harold Brunvand, Curses! Foiled Again! The Hottest Urban Legends Going (New York: Norton, 1989), 195-202.
49. Gary Alan Fine, "Welcome to the World of AIDS: Fantasies of Female Revenge," Western Folklore 46 (1987): 192-197.
50. Elissa Henken, "Gender Shifts in Contemporary Legend," Western Folklore 63 (2004): 237-256.
51. Brunvand, The Baby Train, 152.
52. Kate Barry, "Kidney Theft Crosses the Border," posted on the listserv alt.folklore.urban, on December 20, 1996 (no longer available there);
53. Archived at "Kidney Theft," Don't Spread That Hoax! http://www.nonprofit.net/hoax/catalog/Kidney_Theft/kidney1.htm (accessed December 4, 2009).
54. Goska, "'Waking up Less Than Whole,'" 198.
55. Gillian Bennett, Bodies: Sex, Violence, Disease, and Death in Contemporary Legend (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 201.
56. Véronique Campion-Vincent, Organ Theft Legends (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 31-33.
57. See Raymond T. McNally, Dracula Was a Woman: In Search of the Blood Countess of Transylvania (New York: McGraw Hill, 1983).
58. R. Po-chia Hsia, The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988);
59. Miri Rubin, Gentile Tales: The Narrative Assault on Late Medieval Jews (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).
60. Arlette Farge and Jacques Revel, The Vanishing Children of Paris (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1991), 104-113.
61. Quoted in Bennett, Bodies, 191.
62. Dionizjusz Czubala, " 'The Black Volga': Child Abduction Urban Legends in Poland and Russia," FOAFTale News 21 (February 1991): 1-3.
63. Giuseppe Stilo and Paolo Toselli, "The Kidnappers and the Black Ambulance: Child Abduction Legends from Sicily," FOAFTale News 23 (September 1991): 5-6.
64. Gladys-Marie Fry, Night Riders in Black Folk History (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1975), 196.
65. Patricia Turner, I Heard It through the Grapevine: Rumor in African-American Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 137, 144, 148.
66. Gary Alan Fine and Patricia Turner, Whispers on the Color Line: Rumor and Race in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
67. Luise White, "Social Construction and Social Consequences," pp. 241-254 in Rumor Mills: The Social Impact of Rumor and Legend, ed. Gary Alan Fine, Véronique Campion- Vincent, and Chip Heath (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2005), 241.
68. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "From Evil Others to Evil Elites: A Dominant Pattern in Conspiracy Theories Today," pp. 103-122 in Rumor Mills: The Social Impact of Rumor and Legend, ed. Gary Alan Fine, Véronique Campion-Vincent, and Chip Heath (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2005), 117-18.
69. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "Organ Theft Narratives," Western Folklore 56 (1997): 1-37.
70. For a fuller account of this incident, see John King Fairbank, "Patterns behind The Tientsin Massacre," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 20, no. 3/4 (December 1957): 480-511, http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0073-0548%28195712%2920%3A3%2F4%3C480%3APBTTM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G.
71. Luise White, Speaking with Vampires: Rumor and History in Colonial Africa (Berkeley:University of California Press, 2000).
72. This point is also made by Pamela Feldman-Savelsberg, Flavien T. Ndonko, and Song Yang, "How Rumor Begets Rumor: Collective Memory, Ethnic Conflict, and Reproductive Rumors in Cameroon," pp. 141-157 in Rumor Mills: The Social Impact of Rumor and Legend, ed. Gary Alan Fine, Véronique Campion-Vincent, and Chip Heath (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2005).
73. William H. Friedland, "Some Urban Myths in East Africa," pp. 93-96 in Myth in Modern Africa: The Fourteenth Conference Proceedings of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute for Social Research, ed. Allie Dubb (Lusaka, Zambia: Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 1960).
74. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, "The Global Traffic in Organs," Current Anthropology 41 (2000): 191-224.
75. Nicole Maxwell, Witch-Doctor's Apprentice: Hunting for Medicinal Plants in the Amazon, revised ed. (New York: Collier Books, 1975), 21-23.
76. Frank de Caro, "The Body Parts Panic and the Peruvian Pistaco Tradition," FOAFTale News 36 (January 1995): 1.
77. Phyllis Rose, Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Time (New York: Doubleday, 1989), 237;
78. Barbara Katz-Rothman, Weaving a Family: Untangling Race and Adoption (Boston: Beacon, 2005), 136.
79. Brunvand, The Baby Train, 153.
80. Anna Pukas, "The Global Lie That Cannot Be Silenced," Folklore Frontiers 27 (1995): 16-17
81. Bennett, Bodies, 194.
82. "Europeans Move to Tack Down Baby Traffickers," IPS-Inter Press Service, September 21, 1988.
83. Bennett, Bodies, 194.
84. Schreiberg, "Dead Babies," 12-13.
85. Bennett, Bodies, 196-197.
86. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, "Truth and Rumor on the Organ Trail," Natural History 107 (1998): 48.
87. Schreiberg, "Dead Babies," 12.
88. "More Organ Sale Rumors," FOAFTale News 38 (December 1995): 8.
89. Todd Leventhal, "The 'Baby Parts' Myth: An Anatomy of a Rumor," http://tafkac.org/medical/organ.theft/baby.parts/baby_parts_myth.html (accessed May 14, 2009).
90. David Samper, "Cannibalizing Kids: Rumor and Resistance in Latin America," Journal of Folklore Research 39 (2002): 1-32, pp. 16-20.
91. Adrian Dimmick, "Cannibals and Stolen Organs," Folk-Lore Society News 21 (June 1995): 10.
92. Bill Ellis, "Body Parts Panics in Guatemala," FOAFTale News 33-34 (June 1994): 17.
93. "Organ Trafficking and Child Theft Abounds," IPS-Inter Press Service, March 27, 1995;
94. "Rumor and Rage," People, April 25, 1995, 78.
95. Bennett, Bodies, 257-258.
96. Quoted in Anne Collinson, "The Littlest Immigrants: Cross-Border Adoption in the Americas, Policy, and Women's History," Journal of Women's History 19 (2007): 132-141, p. 136.
97. John A. Shonder, "Organ Theft Rumors in Guatemala: Some Personal Observations," FOAFTale News 35 (October 1994): 2.
98. See also Trish O'Kane, "Dangerous Rumors," Time, April 18, 1994, 48.
99. Collinson, "The Littlest Immigrants," 136.
100. Ibon Villelabeitia, Reuters news report, May 4, 2000, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/guatemala/japanese.htm (accessed May 14, 2009);
101. Will Weissert, Associated Press news report, May 13, 2000, http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/guatemala/rumor.htm (accessed May 14, 2009).
102. See also Robert Sitler, "Understanding Death in a Mayan Market," Community College Humanities Review 22, no. 1 (Fall 2001): 88-98, www.stetson.edu/~rsitler/TodosSantos/Ts.doc (accessed May 14, 2009).
103. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 233-258;
104. Scheper-Hughes, "Truth and Rumor on the Organ Trail," 48.
105. Steven L. Varnis, "Regulating the Global Adoption of Children," Society 38 (January/February 2001): 39-46.
106. Scheper-Hughes, Death without Weeping, 233-258.
107. Terry Ann Knopf, Rumors, Race, and Riots (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1975), 168.
108. Samper, "Cannibalizing Kids," 19.
109. Gonzalo Portocarrero Maisch, Isidro Valentin, and Soraya Irigoyen, Sacaojos: Crisis Social y Fantasmas Coloniales (Lima, Peru: TAREA), 35, translated by David Samper, "Cannibalizing Kids," 18.
110. Ralph Rosnow and Gary Alan Fine, Rumor and Gossip: The Social Psychology of Hearsay (New York: Elsevier, 1976);
111. Gary Alan Fine, Manufacturing Tales: Sex and Money in Contemporary Legend (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992);
112. Gary Alan Fine, "Accounting for Rumor: The Creation of Credibility in Folk Knowledge," pp. 123-136 in Folklore Interpreted: Essays in Honor of Alan Dundes, ed. Regina Bendix and Rosemary Zumwalt (New York: Garland, 1995).
113. Bill Ellis, Aliens, Ghosts, and Cults: Legends We Live (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2001), xiv, 235.
114. See chapter 2 in Gary Alan Fine and Patricia Turner, Whispers on the Color Line:Rumor and Race in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
115. Bill Ellis, "Contemporary Legendry-'The Pale Cast of Thought?' An Editorial," FOAFTale News 21 (March 1991): 7-8;
116. John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton, "How PR Sold the War in the Persian Gulf," in Toxic Sludge Is Good For You: Lies, Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1995), http://www.prwatch.org/books/tsigfy10.html;
117. Tom Regan, "When Contemplating War, Beware Babies in Incubators," Christian Science Monitor, September 6, 2002, http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0906/p25s02-cogn.html;
118. Mitchel Cohen, "How the War Party Sold the 1991 Bombing of Iraq to US," Antiwar.com, December 30, 2002, http://www.antiwar.com/orig/cohen1.html (accessed June 22, 2008).
119. Quoted in Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994), 221-222.
120. Tamotsu Shibutani, Improvised News: A Sociological Study of Rumor (Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), 128.
121. Gordon Allport and Leo G. Postman, The Psychology of Rumor (New York: Holt, 1947).
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127. See "Great American Boycott," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_American_Boycott (accessed May 6, 2008).
128. Barbara and David P. Mikkelson, "Talking Shoplifting," Urban Legends Reference Pages, http://www.snopes.com/politics/immigration/shoplift.asp (accessed May 13, 2006).
129. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991).
130. Talk show transcripts quoted in "Paranoia Pandemic: Conservative Media Baselessly Blame Swine Flu Outbreak on Immigrants," Media Matters for America, April 27, 2009, http://mediamatters.org/research/200904270037 (accessed July 8, 2009).
131. Lauren R. Harrison, "With Swine Flu, Hispanics Worry about Racism," April 30, 2009, http://www.chicagobreakingnews.com/2009/04/with?swine?flu?hispanics?worry?about?racism.html (accessed May 10, 2009).
132. Transcript quoted in "O'Reilly Agreed with Caller Who Labeled Immigrants 'Biological Weapon[s],'" Media Matters for America, April 19, 2005, http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/200504190002 (accessed July 8, 2009).
133. Hemant Shah, " 'Asian Culture' and Asian American Identities in the Television and Film Industries of the United States," Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education 3, no. 3 (August 2003), http://www.utpjournals.com/jour.ihtml?lp=simile/issue11/shahX2.html#t.
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135. Randy Shilts, And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (New York: St. Martins, 1987).
136. Marc Lacey and Andrew Jacobs, "Even as Fears of Flu Ebb, Mexicans Feel Stigma," New York Times, May 4, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/world/asia/05china.html (accessed May 10, 2009).
137. Aristotle, Politics, section 1253a.
138. "Analogy of the Body Politic," The Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, ed. Philip P. Wiener (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973-1974), http://etext.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi? id=dv1-11.
139. Florence E. Baer, "'Give Me ... Your Huddled Masses': Anti-Refugee Lore and the 'Image of Limited Good,'" Western Folklore 41 (1982): 275-291;
140. Roger Mitchell, "The Will to Believe and Anti-Refugee Rumors," Midwestern Folklore 13 (1987): 5-15.
141. Baer, "'Give Me ... Your Huddled Masses,'" 278.
142. Ray Allen Billington, The Protestant Crusade: 1800-1860: A Study of the Origins of American Nativism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1964), 362.
143. Mary Ann Irwin, "'White Slavery' as Metaphor: Anatomy of a Moral Panic," Ex Post Facto: The History Journal 5 (1996), http://www.walnet.org/csis/papers/irwin-wslavery.html.
144. Alan Hunt, "Anxiety and Social Explanation: Some Anxieties about Anxiety," Journal of Social History 32 (1999): 509-528.
145. Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight against White Slavery, 1880-1939 (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1982), 82.
146. State of Massachusetts, "Report of the Commission for the Investigation of the White Slave Traffic, So Called" (1913).
147. Ernest A. Bell, Fighting the Traffic in Young Girls: or, War on the White Slave Trade (Nashville:Southwestern Company, 1910), 18.
148. Hunt, "Anxiety and Social Explanation," 516.
149. Edgar Morin, Rumor in Orléans (New York: Random House, 1971).
150. David Frankfurter, Evil Incarnate: Rumors of Demonic Conspiracy and Satanic Abuse in History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 137.
151. Peter Landesman, "The Girls Next Door," New York Times Magazine, January 24, 2004, 32.
152. Michael Specter, "Contraband Women-A Special Report," New York Times, January 11, 1998, http://www.michaelspecter.com/times/1998/1998_01_11_nyt_contraband.html.
153. Victor Malarek, The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade (New York: Arcade Publishing), 2003.
154. William Pierce, "Jews and the White Slave Trade," Free Speech 4, no. 2 (February 1998), http://www.natvan.com/free-speech/fs982a.html.
155. Alison Bateman-House and Amy Fairchild, "Medical Examination of Immigrants at Ellis Island," Virtual Mentor 10:4 (April 2008): 235-241, http://virtualmentor.amaassn.org/2008/04/mhst1-0804.html (accessed December 5, 2009).
156. Howard Markel and Sam Potts, "American Epidemics, a Brief History," New York Times, May 2, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/03/opinion/03markel.html?emc=eta1 (accessed May 3, 2009).
157. Paul Farmer, AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
158. For additional discussion of concerns about black immigrants spreading disease, see Barbara Browning, Infectious Rhythm: Metaphors of Contagion and the Spread of African Culture (New York: Routledge, 1998).
159. The Chicago Historical Society and Northwestern University, "The Official Report," The Great Chicago Fire and the Web of Memory, last revised October 1, 1997, http://www.chicagohs.org/FIRE/oleary/report.html.
160. Willis Fletcher Johnson, History of the Johnstown Flood (Philadelphia: Edgewood Publishing Co., 1889), http://prr.railfan.net/documents/JohnstownFlood/chapter17.html.
161. David McCullough, Johnstown Flood (New York: Peter Smith, 1987), 210-212.
162. Melvin Lerner, The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion (New York: Plenum, 1980).
163. Carl Smith, Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
164. Adrienne Mayor, "The Nessus Shirt in the New World: Smallpox Blankets in History and Legend," Journal of American Folklore 108 (1995): 54-77.
165. Tacitus, "... haud proinde in crimine incendii quam odio humani generis convicti sunt," Annals 15.44.
166. Carl Lindahl, "Katrina Stories, The David Effect, and The Right to Be Wrong," unpublished manuscript (2006).
167. Dionizjusz Czubala, "Mongolian Contemporary Legends: Field Research Report, Part Two. Political Rumors and Sensations," FOAFTale News 29 (March 1993): 5.
168. Tetsuya Ozaki, "Buddha's Teachings and the Possibility of 'Globalization,'" http://rhizome.org/artbase/2398/fear/ozaki.html (accessed October 24, 2005).
169. Vernon Stauffer, New England and the Bavarian Illuminati (New York: Columbia University Press, 1918), 268.
170. Radio show transcript quoted in "Paranoia Pandemic."
171. Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 273-286.
172. Jenny Kitzinger, "Media Templates: Patterns of Association and the (Re)construction of Meaning Over Time," Media, Culture & Society 22 (2000): 61-84.
173. See, for instance, Raymond A. Bauer and D. B. Gleicher, "Word-of-Mouth Communication in the Soviet Union," Public Opinion Quarterly 17 (1953): 297-310.
174. Bill Ellis, Aliens, Ghosts, and Cults: Legends We Live (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001), 11.
175. "The Fall Guy," http://www.snopes.com/rumors/survivor.htm (accessed April 14, 2006).
176. Dexter Filkins, "After the Attacks: Alive; Entombed for a Day, Then Found," New York Times, September 13, 2001, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html? res=9B01E0DB1038F930A2575AC0A9679C8B63.
177. Susan Wells and Jack Maher, "AP Photographer Stands by His Work," http://9news.com/newsroom/13294.html (accessed December 19, 2005).
178. E-mail dated September 25, 2001. "'Satan in the Smoke' Emails," The September 11 Digital Archive, Fairfax, VA: Center for History and New Media, George Mason University), http://911digitalarchive.org/parser.php?object_id=3420.
179. Daniel Wojcik, "'Polaroids from Heaven': Photography, Folk Religion, and the Miraculous Image Tradition at a Marian Apparition," Journal of American Folklore 109, no. 432 (1996): 129-148.
180. E-mail dated September 21, 2001. "'Satan in the Smoke' Emails," http://911digitalarchive.org/parser.php?object_id=3265.
181. E-mail dated September 25, 2001. "'Satan in the Smoke' Emails," http://911digitalarchive.org/parser.php?object_id=3536.
182. E-mail dated September 21, 2001. "'Satan in the Smoke' Emails," http://911digitalarchive.org/parser.php?object_id=3132.
183. John R. Groch, "September 11, In Theory," Journal of American Studies of Turkey 14 (2001): 105-109, p. 105.
184. Karen Cerulo (ed.), Culture in Mind: Toward of Sociology of Culture and Cognition (New York: Routledge, 2002);
185. Eviatar Zerubavel, Social Mindscapes (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1997).
186. Jeffrey Olick and Joyce Robbins, "Social Memory Studies: From Collective Memory to the Historical Sociology of Mnemonic Practices," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 105-140.
187. Thierry Meyssan, 9/11: The Big Lie (London: Carnot, 2001);
188. Thierry Meyssan, Pentagate (London: Carnot, 2002);
189. Webster Griffin Tarpley, 9/11 Synthetic Terror: Made in USA (Joshua Tree, CA: Progressive Press, 2005).
190. Diane Goldstein, "A Little Knowledge Is a Dangerous Thing," unpublished manuscript, 2002.
191. Felicity Barringer, "The Rumor: A False Challenge to News Photos Takes Root on the Web," New York Times, September 24, 2001, C9;
192. Christopher Callahan, "Anatomy of an Urban Legend," American Journalism Review (November 2001): 13.
193. Heather MacDonald, "Keeping New York Safe from Terrorism," City Journal (Autumn 2001): 58-68.
194. Irfan Khawaja, "The Celebrating Arabs of Paterson, NJ: An Episode in Contemporary Legendry," unpublished manuscript, 2002.
195. Ralph L. Rosnow and Gary Alan Fine, Rumor and Gossip: The Social Psychology of Hearsay (New York: Elsevier, 1976), 11.
196. See Serge F. Kovaleski and Frederick Kunkle, "Northern New Jersey Draws Probers' Eyes; Many in Area Fell Wrongly Targeted," Washington Post, September 17, 2001, A6. Aside from this article, we could find no other information about this event.
197. Jeffrey Zaslow, "Arab's Restaurant is Nearly Ruined by Rumor of Celebration on Sept. 11," Wall Street Journal, March 13, 2002, A1.
198. Nicole Gaudiano, "Scares, Hoaxes, and False Alarms," Bergen Record, September 14, 2001, A19.
199. Anthony Colarossi, "Critics: Radio Shows Fuel Hate," Orlando Sentinel, September 14, 2001, D1.
200. Marilynn S. Johnson, "Gender, Race, and Rumors: Re-Examining the 1943 Race Riots," Gender and History 10 (1998): 252-277.
201. Goldstein, "A Little Knowledge Is a Dangerous Thing."
202. Press release, Federal Bureau of Investigation, October 15, 2001, http://www.fbi.gov/pressre101/101501.htm.
203. See http://chnm.gmu.edu/ematters/issue6/911exhibit/emails/halloween.htm.
204. See http://www.snopes2.com/rumors/mallrisk.htm.
205. Bill Ellis, Making a Big Apple Crumble: The Role of Humor in Constructing a Global Response to Disaster. Special issue of New Directions in Folklore 6 (June 2002), http://www.temple.edu/isllc/newfolk/bigapple/bigapple1.html.
206. Goldstein, "A Little Knowledge Is a Dangerous Thing."
207. Bruce Wiltshire, Role Playing and Identity: The Limits of Theatre as Metaphor (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982).
208. Barbara Mikkelson, "Stalk Tip," Urban Legends Reference Pages, October 12, 2001, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/warning.htm.
209. David Emery, "Soda Pop Terrorist Warning," Urban Legends and Folklore, August 28, 2002, http://www.urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl-soda-pop-terror.htm.
210. "Tainted Coke," Urban Legends, 102.7 WGNI (Wilmington, NC), October 9, 2002, http://wgni.com/html/legends.htm.
211. William J. Bennett, Why We Fight: Moral Clarity and the War on Terrorism (Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2003), 18-19, 67-68.
212. Fouad Ajami, "Out of Egypt," New York Times Magazine, October 7, 2001, 19.
213. Peter Callero, "From Role-playing to Role-using: Understanding Role as Resource," Social Psychology Quarterly 57 (1994): 228-243;
214. Walter Contu, "Role-playing vs. Role-taking:An Appeal for Clarification," American Sociological Review 16 (1951): 180-187.
215. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975).
216. Fred Siegel, "Radical Islam at War With America," New York Post, September 14, 2001.
217. See http://www.uscj.org/njersey/worange/rav/5762_Sermons_High_Holy_Days/First_Day_Rosh_Hashana_5762_htm.
218. Robert Knapp, "A Psychology of Rumor," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 22-37.
219. Drew Limsky, "America's Course: Of War," Los Angeles Times, September 23, 2001, M2.
220. Robert Grant, "Yelling Fire in a Packed Theater," Bergen Record, October 1, 2001, 16.
221. John Chadwick, "Battling Rumors-and Hatred," Bergen Record, September 13, 2001, A8.
222. See http://chmn.gmu.edu/ematters/issue6/911exhibit/emails/halloween.htm.
223. See http://www.snopes2.com/rumors/mallrisk.htm.
224. Jill Lepore, "It's Spreading: Outbreaks, Media Scares, and the Parrot Panic of 1930," The New Yorker, June 1, 2009, 46-50, p. 46. Material in this section is taken from Lepore's article.
225. See "Cane Backed," http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/candycane.asp (accessed April 19, 2008);
226. "Chopsticks," http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/chopsticks.asp (accessed April 19, 2008).
227. See Patrick Mullen, "Department Store Snakes," Indiana Folklore 3 (1970): 214-228;
228. George Carey, Maryland Folk Legends and Folk Songs (Cambridge, MD: Tidewater Publishers, 1971);
229. Xenia Cord, "Department Store Snakes," Indiana Folklore 2 (1969): 110-115;
230. Ann Carpenter, "Cobras at K-Mart:Legends of Hidden Danger," Publications of the Texas Folklore Society 40 (1976): 36-45;
231. Frederick Koenig, Rumor in the Marketplace: The Social Psychology of Commercial Hearsay (Dover, MA: Auburn House, 1985), 85-86.
232. Christine Schiavo, "Burlington Can't Button Rumor of a Snake up Its Coat Sleeve; Whitehall Twp. Retailer Says Some Are Beginning to Believe the Hidden Serpent Story," Allentown Morning Call, November 24, 1997, B1.
233. Paul Smith, The Book of Nasty Legends (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983), 58-59.
234. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends and Their Meanings (New York: Norton, 1981), 161.
235. Keith Faur, "Snake-in-Coat Tale Called Folklore Fantasy," Omaha World-Herald, April 4, 1991, 1, 10, p. 1.
236. "The Snake in the Store," http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/blsnakestore.htm (accessed December 7, 2005).
237. Gary Alan Fine, "The Goliath Effect: Corporate Dominance and Mercantile Legends," Journal of American Folklore 98 (1985): 63-84.
238. Gary Alan Fine, "Evaluating Psychoanalytic Folklore: Are Freudians Ever Right?" New York Folklore 10 (1984): 5-20.
239. Patrick Mullen, "Department Store Snakes," Indiana Folklore 3 (1970): 214-228, p. 228.
240. Mullen, "Department Store Snakes," 228.
241. Brunvand, The Mexican Pet: More "New" Urban Legends and Some Old Favorites (New York: Norton, 1986), 83-84.
242. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "Complots et Avertissements: Légendes Urbaines dans la Ville," Revue Français de Sociologie 30 (1989): 103.
243. Bengt af Klintberg, "Legends and Rumors About Spiders and Snakes," Fabula, 26 (1985): 274-287, p. 281.
244. Brian O'Neill, "Tarantula Rumor Gives Cactus Customers the Creeps," Pittsburgh Press, May 23, 1990, B1.
245. "Cactus and Spiders," New York Times, November 30, 1993, C11.
246. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "Complots et Avertissements," 91-105, p. 103.
247. Klintberg, "Legends and Rumors about Spiders and Snakes," 275.
248. "Frequently Asked Questions about Spiders," http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/plantclinic/faqs/faqs_spdrs.html (accessed December 12, 2005).
249. R. Gane, "The Respiration of Bananas in Presence of Ethylene," New Phytologist 36, no. 2 (1937): 170-178.
250. George H. Townsend with Felix J. Levy, Harry G. Nicks, George Clinton Crandall, and Charles Phelps, The Relation of Food to Health and Premature Death (St. Louis: Witt Publishing Company, 1897), 181-183.
251. Herbert M. Shelton, The Hygienic System, Vol. II, Orthotrophy, 6th ed. (San Antonio: Dr. Shelton's Health School, 1975. First published 1935), chap. 9, http://www.soilandhealth.org/02/0201hyglibcat/020126shelton.orthotrophy/020126.ch9.htm.
252. "Killer Banana Rumor Grips China," May 25, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia?pacific/6691171.stm (accessed April 19, 2008);
253. Clifford Coonan, "Do Bananas Spread Sars? China Gripped by Health Scare," May 25, 2007, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/do-bananas-spread-sars-china-gripped by-healthscare-450288.html (accessed April 19, 2008).
254. Marina Warner, Monsters of Our Own Making (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2007), 352.
255. Hasia Diner, Hungering for America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 63.
256. Samuel Hopkins Adams, "The Poison Bugaboo," Everybody's Magazine 23, no. 4 (October 1910): 518-525, p. 522.
257. "Spider Bites Man in Supermarket," http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4080950.stm (accessed December 12, 2005).
258. Gary Alan Fine, "Redemption Rumors: Mercantile Legends and Corporate Beneficence," Journal of American Folklore 104 (1991): 179-181;
259. Linda Dégh and Andrew Vázsonyi, "Does the Word Dog Bite? Ostensive Action: A Means of Legend-Telling," Journal of Folklore Research 20 (1983): 5-34.
260. Associated Press, "Black Widows Found in Red Grapes," Portland Press Herald, September 28, 1991;
261. "You Are What You Eat," Time, July 22, 1991, 29;
262. Linda Fullerton, "Stop'n'save Pulls Grapes from Shelves," Portland Press Herald, July 9, 1991, 1A, 8A.
263. Associated Press, "Less Pesticide Means More Bugs for Food Buyers," USA Today, November 26, 2003, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-11-26-bugs_x.htm (accessed September 25, 2007).
264. Lindsay Jones, "'Nasty' Black Widow Spider Found on Grapes," Halifax Daily News, September 15, 2007, http://www.hfxnews.ca/index.cfm?sid=62702&sc=89 (accessed September 25, 2007).
265. Dan E. Miller, "'Snakes in the Greens' and Rumor in the Inner City," Social Science Journal 29 (1992): 381-393.
266. Miller, "Rumor," 512.
267. "False Internet Report about Bananas," http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/banana.htm (accessed February 23, 2006).
268. Stephen Lemons, "Attack of the Flesh-Eating Bananas!" http://www.salon.com/health/log/2000/04/04/banana (accessed February 23, 2006).
269. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "From Evil Others to Evil Elites: A Dominant Pattern in Conspiracy Theories Today," pp. 103-122 in Rumor Mills: The Social Impact of Rumor and Legend, ed. Gary Alan Fine, Véronique Campion-Vincent, and Chip Heath (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2005).
270. Text as quoted in Richard S. Vetter and P. Kirk Visscher, "Oh, What a Tangled Web We Weave: The Anatomy of an Internet Spider Hoax," American Entomologist 46 (2000): 221-223, pp. 221-222. Nearly all Internet versions were verbatim accounts.
271. Jennifer Watson, "Spider Bites: Assessment and Management," Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners 11, no. 5 (May 1999): 216, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1745-7599.1999.tb00566.x (accessed September 26, 2007).
272. Vance Randolph, Pissing in the Snow and Other Ozark Folktales (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976).
273. Vetter and Visscher, "Oh, What a Tangled Web We Weave," 223.
274. "Blush Spider Arachnius Gluteus Is a Hoax," http://www.spiders.ucr.edu/debunk.html (accessed February 22, 2006);
275. "Toilet Spiders," http://www.snopes.com/horrors/insects/buttspdr.htm (accessed February 22, 2006).
276. Eric Nagourney, "Toilet Spiders? Not Real, but Good for a Scare," New York Times, July 31, 2001, F6.
277. "The Gambrinus Company," Company Histories, http://www.fundinguniverse.com/companyhistories/The-Gambrinus-Company-Company-History.html (accessed September 26, 2007).
278. Jonathan Peterson, "Brewer Will Battle False Rumor about Its Product," Los Angeles Times, July 28, 1987, 1-2, p. 1.
279. Gary Alan Fine, "The Goliath Effect: Corporate Dominance and Mercantile Legends," Journal of American Folklore, 98 (1985): 63-84.
280. Lori Rozsa, "Corona Leaves 'em Foaming at the Mouth," Miami Herald, August 1987.
281. Bennett Cerf, Good for a Laugh (Garden City, NY: Hanover House, 1952), 203-204.
282. Debbie Burke, "Packing's 'Case-ready Revolution' Results in Hazleton Plant," Northeast Pennsylvania Business Journal, December 1, 2001, http://www.allbusiness.com/periodicals/article/983777-1.html.
283. Total Impact: Citizenship Report (Minneapolis: Cargill Public Affairs, 2003), 14, http://www.cargill.com/files/br_citizenship.pdf.
284. As documented by an extensive survey conducted by Zogby International, Michael Calogero et al., Greater Hazleton Area Civic Partnership (Utica, NY: Zogby International, August 2007), 81, 92.
285. Michael Vitez, "Small Town, Big Conflict: Latinos Have Helped Hazleton Come Back. Now, the Poconos City Is Targeting Illegal Aliens," Philadelphia Inquirer, June 23, 2006, http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/news/local/14881261.htm.
286. Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 273-286.
287. Robert W. Balch and Margaret Gilliam, "Devil Worship in Western Montana: A Case Study in Rumor Construction," pp. 249-262, in The Satanism Scare ed. James Richardson, Joel Best, and David Bromley (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991).
288. Vitez, "Small Town, Big Conflict."
289. "Philly.com Comments," no 38, posted June 23, 2006.
290. Vitez, "Small Town, Big Conflict."
291. "Philly.com Comments," no 126, posted June 24, 2006.
292. "Philly.com Comments," no 57, posted June 23, 2006.
293. John Bonner, "Rumors about Latino American," undergraduate student contribution to an online discussion forum on urban legends, Penn State Hazleton, April 16, 2004.
294. Kalen Churcher, "Documents Show Large Scope of Drug Ring," The [Scranton/Wilkes-Barre] Times-Leader, November 16, 2003.
295. Shawn M. Kelly, "Hazleton Officials Relay Concerns about Gang Activity," Hazleton Standard-Speaker, December 5, 2005.
296. Matt Conlon, "Rumors about Latinos," undergraduate student contribution to an online discussion forum on urban legends, Penn State Hazleton, December 7, 2006.
297. Jolene Busher, "Out of Box 3," undergraduate student contribution to an online discussion forum on urban legends, Penn State Hazleton, December 12, 2007.
298. Bill Ellis, Aliens, Ghosts, and Cults: Legends We Live (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003), 47-50.
299. Daniel Knappenberger, "Out of the Box," undergraduate student contribution to an online discussion forum on urban legends, Penn State Hazleton, December 11, 2007.
300. Ellis, Aliens, Ghosts, and Cults, 213-214.
301. David Neiwert, "Jury Finds Teens Not Guilty of Hate Crime in Beating Death of Latino," AlterNet, May 6, 2009, http://www.alternet.org/story/139827/ (accessed May 17, 2009).
302. Richardson, "Verdict Surprises Many."
303. Richard Bauman, Verbal Art as Performance (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1977).
304. Erving Goffman, Encounters (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961).
305. Kristen Lechner, "Vanishing Child," undergraduate student contribution to an online discussion forum on urban legends, Penn State Hazleton, December 2, 2004.
306. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Choking Doberman and Other "New" Urban Legends (New York: Norton, 1984), 78-82;
307. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Mexican Pet: More "New" Urban Legends and Some Old Favorites (New York: Norton, 1986), 148-156.
308. Jean-Bruno Renard, "LSD Tattoo Transfers: Rumor from North America to France," Folklore Forum 24, no. 2 (1991): 3-26.
309. There is an extensive literature on issues of impression management within sociology, but the classic study is Erving Goffman, Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959).
310. Lechner, "Vanishing Child,."
311. Gillian Bennett, "The Color of Saying: Modern Legend and Folktale" Southern Folklore 50 (1993): 19-32.
312. Lechner, "Vanishing Child."
313. David Messick and Roderick Kramer, "Trust as a Form of Shallow Morality," pp. 89-117, in Trust in Society, ed. Karen Cook (New York:Russell Sage Foundation, 2001).
314. Carol Heimer, "Solving the Problem of Trust," pp. 40-88, in Trust in Society ed. Karen Cook (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001).
315. Linda Dégh and Andrew Vázsonyi, "Does the Word 'Dog' Bite? Ostensive Action: A Means of Legend Telling," Journal of Folklore Research 20 (1983): 5-34.
316. "Palestinians and al Qaeda Bond through Ship Container," DEBKAfile Special Report, March 17, 2004, http://www.debka.com/article.php? aid=807 (accessed May 11, 2009).
317. William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918-1920), 1545-1546.
318. Ned Martel, "Taking a Long Look at a Latino Gang Named for Fire Ants," New York Times, February 11, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/11/arts/television/11mart.html?ex=1151899200&en=dcaea406fc7742d0&ei=5070 (accessed May 11, 2009).
319. Luis J. Rodriguez, "Gang of Our Own Making," New York Times, March 28, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/opinion/28rodriguez.html?ex=1269666000&en=14b0ac1b86bcf2ef&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland (accessed May 11, 2009).
320. Jerry Seper, "Gang Will Target Minuteman Vigil on Mexico Border," Washington Times, March 28, 2005, http://www.washingtontimes.com/national/20050328-125306-7868r.htm (accessed February 9, 2006).
321. David Holthouse, "Arizona Showdown: High-powered Firearms, Militia Maneuvers and Racism at the Minuteman Project," Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law Center (Summer 2005), http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?pid=917 (accessed May 11, 2009).
322. For an overview of such claims, see Jeffrey S. Victor, "Satanic Cult Rumors as Contemporary Legend," Western Folklore 49 (1990): 51-81
323. Satanic Panic: The Creation of a Contemporary Legend (Chicago: Open Court, 1993);
324. Robert D. Hicks, In Pursuit of Satan: The Police and the Occult (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 1991);
325. Ellis, Aliens, Ghosts, and Cults, 199-219.
326. William Finnegan, "New in Town: The Somalis of Lewiston," The New Yorker, December 11, 2006, 46-58, p. 48.
327. Web page of Congressman Todd Russell Platts, "Internet Rumors," http://www.house.gov/platts/casework/internet-rumors.htm (accessed January 26, 2006).
328. Edwardo Porter, "Illegal Immigrants Are Bolstering Social Security with Billions," New York Times, April 5, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/05/business/05immigration.html?ex=1270353600&en=78c87ac4641dc383&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland (accessed May 11, 2009).
329. "Tax Holidays for Immigrants," http://www.snopes.com/business/taxes/immigrants.asp (accessed November 21, 2005).
330. Johann Hari. "Unions? Ban Them! Cyclists? Fascists!" New Statesman (October 7, 2002), http://www.newstatesman.com/200210070014 (accessed January 28, 2010).
331. Lornet Turnbull and Florangela Davila, "Rumors Fuel Immigrant Fear: Illegal Residents Hiding to Avoid Deportation," Seattle Times, July 25, 2004, http://www.seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2001988098_roundup25m.html (accessed January 26, 2006).
332. Naomi Haveln, "Immigration Rumor Causes Some Latinos to Miss Work," Aspen Times, July 13, 2004, http://www.aspentimes.com/article/20040713/NEWS/107130002&SearchID=73233611757965 (accessed January 26, 2006).
333. Wendell Edwards, "Hispanic Community Still Suspect of Immigration Rumor," KHOU News, April 7, 2004, http://www.khou.com/news/local/stories/khou040427_ds_ImmigrationRumor.168ce872b.html (accessed January 26, 2006).
334. Michele R. Marcucci, "Immigration Roundup Rumors Are All Talk," Oakland Tribune, April 27, 2006, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qu4176/is_20060427/ai_n16227048 (accessed on July 7, 2007).
335. Austin Jenkins, "Rumors and Panic Follow Immigration Raids," Northwest Public Radio, June 27, 2007, http://nwpr.org/07/HomepageArticles/Article.aspx?n=3035 (accessed on July 7, 2007).
336. David Ovalle, "President's Immigration Proposal Stirs Rumors," Miami Herald, February 2, 2004, http://72.14.207.104/search? q=cache:dufjNjqhAhIJ:www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/7852013.htm+David+Ovalle+President%27s+immigration+proposal+Miami+Herald&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=2 (accessed on February 3, 2006).
337. A. Chorus, "The Basic Law of Rumor," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 48 (1953): 313-314.
338. Gordon Allport and Leo Postman, The Psychology of Rumor (New York: Holt, 1947), 5.
339. Neiwert, "Jury Finds Teens Not Guilty."
340. Bennett Cerf, Good for a Laugh (Garden City, NY: Hanover House, 1952), 203-204.
341. Irish Mike, "Don't Bother, You Won't Understand Anyway," posted on rec.gambling.poker, February 11, 2004 (accessed April 19, 2006).
342. John Ciardi, "Manner of Speaking," Saturday Review, November 27, 1965, 18.
343. Gillian Bennett, "Legend: Performance and Truth," pp. 13-36 in Monsters with Iron Teeth: Perspectives on Contemporary Legend III, ed. Gillian Bennett, Paul Smith, and J. D. A. Widdowson (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988);
344. "The Color of Saying:Modern Legend and Folktale," Southern Folklore 50 (1993): 19-32.
345. Nathaniel Hawthorne, The English Notebooks, ed. Randall Stewart (New York:Russell & Russell, 1962), 55.
346. "Unicode Humor," http://www.i18nguy.com/humor/unicode?humor.htm (accessed February 20, 2006).
347. "Prostitution Medallion," http://www.snopes.com/risque/hookers/medal.htm (accessed November 21, 2005).
348. "Hanzi Smatter: Dedicated to the Misuse of Chinese Characters in Western Culture," http://www.hanzismatter.com (accessed February 21, 2006).
349. "Chinese Tattoos Article," http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/phorum/read.php?1,387,page=1 (accessed February 21, 2006).
350. Georgina Littlejohn, "The Ugly Truth about This Badly Drawn Boy," Metro, June 6, 2002, 8.
351. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Choking Doberman and Other Urban Legends (New York: Norton, 1984), 96.
352. Florence E. Baer, " 'Give Me ... Your Huddled Masses': Anti-Vietnamese Refugee Lore and the 'Image of Limited Good,' " Western Folklore 41 (1982), 275-291.
353. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends and Their Meanings (New York: Norton, 1980), 62-64.
354. Jan Harold Brunvand, Encyclopedia of Urban Legends (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002), 16.
355. Brunvand, Encyclopedia of Urban Legends, 16.
356. "Anti-Abortion Rally," Linuxinit, January 28, 2008, http://linuxinit.net/site/?id=156 (accessed April 16, 2008).
357. "Reports of Contemporary Cannibalism in China. Here Be Cannibals," The Heretical Press, last updated February 3, 2005, http://www.heretical.com/cannibal/china.html (accessed April 19, 2006).
358. Christian Life Resources, "Investigation Called for on Consumption of Fetal Tissue as Health Food," LifeWire, May 5, 1995, http://www.christianliferesources.com/index.php?/news/view.php&newsid=302 (accessed May 11, 2009).
359. David Emery, "Do They Eat Babies in China?" Urban Legends and Folklore 2 (October 2005), http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm.
360. Barbara Mikkelson, "Fetus Feast," 19 (June 2001), http://www.snopes.com/horrors/cannibal/fetus.htm (accessed May 12, 2009).
361. Mike Kelly, "Love Leads into Rattrap," Austin American Statesman, September 23, 1983.
362. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Mexican Pet: More "New" Urban Legends and Some Old Favorites (New York: Norton, 1986), 22.
363. "I don't hate illegal immigrants ...," America Is Screwed, http://americaisscrewed.com/gpage4.html (accessed July 8, 2009).
364. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "Complots et avertissements: legends urbaines dans la ville," Revue française de sociologies (1989), 91-105, p. 104. The translation is Campion- Vincent's.
365. "The Mexican Pet: An Urban Legend," Urban Legends and Folklore, http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/blpet.htm (accessed April 19, 2006). This variant is attributed to Lorraine Lovely and is dated September 9, 1999, on other Web sites.
366. Martin van Beynen, "Rat Rumour Baffles MAF," The Press (Christchurch, New Zealand) 22 (May 1998), posted on alt.folklore.suburban, http://members.tripod.com/~SaraAnnette/lore/ratnews.html (accessed April 19, 2006).
367. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Baby Train and Other Lusty Urban Legends (New York:Norton, 1993), 55. Some European versions, interestingly, place the crime in Florida, Hawaii, New York, or other American resort communities.
368. Albert B. Friedman, "The Scatological Rites of Burglars," Western Folklore 27 (1968), 171-179.
369. Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Das Huhn mit dem Gipsbeim (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1993), 37-38.
370. Diane E. Goldstein, Once Upon a Virus: AIDS Legends and Vernacular Risk Perception (Logan, UT: Utah State University Press, 2004), 101.
371. "Bad Mary Has AIDS so Use Protected Sex Please!", submitted by luckygur12003@excite.com to Forward Garden, http://www.forwardgarden.com/forward/29429.html.
372. Gary Alan Fine, "Welcome to the World of AIDS: Fantasies of Female Revenge," Western Folklore 46 (1987): 192-197.
373. "Legends in the Tabloids," FOAFtale News 18 (June 1990), 10
374. Jean-Nol Kapferer, "The Persuasiveness of an Urban Legend: The Case of 'Mickey Mouse Acid,'" Contemporary Legend (1993): 85-101).
375. Robert Knapp, "A Psychology of Rumor," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 22-37.
376. Gordon Allport and Leo G. Postman, The Psychology of Rumor (New York: Holt, 1947).
377. Véronique Campion-Vincent, "From Evil Others to Evil Elites: A Dominant Pattern in Conspiracy Theories Today," pp. 103-122 in Rumor Mills: The Social Impact of Rumors and Legends, ed. Gary Alan Fine, Véronique Campion-Vincent, and Chip Heath (New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2005).
378. Fine and Turner, Whispers on the Color Line, 224-225.
379. Bill Ellis, Aliens, Ghosts, and Cults: Legends We Live (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003) 243.
380. Diane E. Goldstein, Once Upon a Virus: AIDS Legends and Vernacular Risk Perception (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2004).
381. Ellis, Raising the Devil;
382. Gillian Bennett, Bodies: Sex, Violence, Disease, and Death in Contemporary Legend (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005).
383. See "Worker: I Saw Rat Roasting in Peanut Plant," CBS News:The Early Show (February 3, 2009). Available:http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/02/03/earlyshow/health/main4771754.shtml. Accessed: July 16, 2009.
384. Nancy Scheper-Huges, "The Global Traffic in Organs," Current Anthropology 41 (2000): 191-224.
385. Gary Alan Fine, "Rumor, Trust and Civil Society: Collective Memory and Cultures of Judgment," Diogenes 54 (2007): 5-18.
386. Michael Calogero, et al. Greater Hazleton Area Civic Partnership (Utica, NY: Zogby International, 2007).
387. Robert Frost, "Mending Wall," North of Boston (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1914), 12. Quoted from the Google books public domain edition, http://books.google.com/books? id=_dtaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false.