Packaging Terrorism: Co-Opting the News for Politics and Profit

Packaging Terrorism: Co-Opting the News for Politics and Profit

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-240

  Moeller, Susan D ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 79957040529     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444306040     Document Type: Book

References (339)

1. McCombs, Maxwell. 2004. Setting the Agenda: The Mass Media and Public Opinion. New York: Polity.
2. Entman, Robert M. 2003. Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
3. Graber, Doris A., Denis McQuail, and Pippa Norris. 2007. The Politics of News: The News of Politics. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
4. Norris, Pippa, Marion R. Just, and Montague Kern, eds. 2003. Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government and the Public. New York: Routledge.
5. Reese, Stephen D., Jr., Oscar H. Gandy, and August E. Grant. 2003. Framing Public Life: Perspectives on Media and Our Understanding of the Social World. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6. Seib, Philip. 2006. Beyond the Front Lines: How the News Media Cover a World Shaped by War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
7. Wolfsfeld, Gadi, 1997. Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8. Mann, James. 2004. Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush's War Cabinet. New York:Penguin, and Kakutani, Michiko. Standard Operating Procedure, by Philip Gourevitch and Errol Morris. International Herald Tribune. June 2, 2008. Available: http://www. iht.com/articles/2008/06/03/arts/booktue.php.
9. Transcript of remarks by President Bush on USS Enterprise, U.S. Newswire, Dec. 7, 2001.
10. See previous books by the author that detail the honeymoon period between the US media and US government officials (especially the President) in the aftermath of a crisis: Moeller, Susan. 1989. Shooting War: Photography and the American Experience of Combat. New York: Basic Books, and Moeller, Susan. 1999. Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death. New York: Routledge.
11. Walter Isaacson is the president and CEO of the Aspen Institute, a leadership institute focused on US foreign policy and national security. Isaacson was formerly the chairman and CEO of CNN and the managing editor of Time magazine.
12. Quoted in Kurtz, Howard. CNN chief orders "balance" in war news: reporters are told to remind viewers why U.S. is bombing. Washington Post, Oct. 31, 2001, p. C01.
13. Krugman, Paul. Fearing fear itself. New York Times, Oct. 29, 2007. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/opinion/29krugman.html?th=&emc=th&page wanted=print.
14. As the media studies that ICMPA conducted demonstrated, American and British media are not the only ones to take nationalistic or chauvinistic approaches to covering international news events. For an article that discusses this behavior in general see Moeller, Susan. "Regarding the pain of others": Media, bias and the coverage of international disasters. Journal of International Affairs (Spring/Summer 2006), pp. 173-96.
15. Are you ready? An in-depth guide to citizen preparedness. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Available: http://www.fema.gov/areyouready/terrorism.shtm.
16. See also Brown, Michael. Letters to the Editor. New York Times, Feb. 14, 2003. Brown was the Undersecretary of Homeland Security for Emergency Preparedness and Response.
17. Chang, Kenneth, and Judith Miller. Threats and responses: Protective devices; duct tape and plastic sheeting can offer solace, if not real security. New York Times, Feb. 13, 2003. Available: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E7DC143AF930A25751C0A 9659C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print.
18. United Nationals General Assembly. Uniting against terrorism: Recommendations for a global counter-terrorism strategy. Report of the Secretary-General. 27 Apr. 2006. Available: www.unodc.org/pdf/terrorism/Global/en/3r60-825en.pdf.
19. See also Mueller, John. 2007. Overblown: How Politicians and The Terrorism Industry Inflate National Security Threats, and Why We Believe Them. New York: Simon & Schuster.
20. Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness. Federal Emergency Management Agency, p. 160.
21. Are You Ready? also discussed guidelines for Americans to protect themselves against technological and natural hazards, as well as against a possible NCB attack.
22. Full transcript of bin Laden's speech. Aljazeera.net. 2004. Available: http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403.
23. Sherwell, Philip. Bush takes a six-point lead after new bin Laden tape. The Telegraph, Oct. 30, 2004. Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/10/31/wus31.xm l&sSheet=/news/2004/10/31/ixnewstop.html.
24. Steel, Ronald. Fight fire with fire. New York Times, July 25, 2004, Book Review, p. 13.
25. Leonard, Tom. BBC edits out the word "terrorist." Telegraph, July 12, 2005. Available:http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/07/1 2/nbbc12.xml.
26. Trouble with the T-word? BBC News [database online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/ifs/low/newsid_4680000/newsid_4680100/46 80125.stm.
27. Gelfand, Lou. Newspaper careful in use of label "terrorist." Minneapolis Star Tribune, Feb. 3, 2002, p. 27A.
28. Getler, Michael. The language of terrorism. Washington Post, Sept. 21, 2003, p. B6.
29. Kurtz, Howard. Peter Jennings, in the news for what he didn't say. Washington Post, Sept. 24, 2001, p. C1.
30. Maguire, Sean. When does Reuters use the word terrorist or terrorism? Available:http://blogs.reuters.com/blog/2007/06/13/when-does-reuters-use -the-word-terroristor- terrorism/.
31. The CBC's guidelines can be found at: CBC defends ban on T word. Available: http://littlegreenfootballs.com/weblog/?entry=16716_CBC_Defends_Ban_on_T_Word&only.
32. For ABC's guidelines, see Blair, Tim. ABC struggling for a defining statement in the war on terrorism. Sydney Morning Herald, Apr. 2, 2004. Available: http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/04/01/1080544628975.html?from=storyr hs.
33. Quoted in Conlan, Tara. BBC warns staff over "terrorism." Guardian, Dec. 16, 2005. Available: http://media.guardian.co.uk/bbc/story/0,,1668436,00.html.
34. Okrent, Daniel. The war of the words: A dispatch from the front lines. New York Times, Mar. 6, 2005. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/06/weekinreview/06bott. html?ex=1267851600&en=631e2822853e2dc5&ei=5090&partner=rssus erland.
35. Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass, 1871.
36. National Counterterrorism Center. 2008 Counterterrorism Calendar. Available:http://www.nctc.gov/site/index.html. A downloadable, print version is available at:http://www.nctc.gov/docs/ct_calendar_2007.pdf.
37. Absent a shared legal definition, "the term terrorism is widely misused," noted counterterrorism expert Neil Livingstone. "It is utilized in its generic sense as a form of shorthand by governments and the media, and is applied to a variety of acts and occurrences." See Livingstone, Neil. 1982. The War against Terrorism. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, p. 4.
38. Barr, Cameron W. In Mideast, one weapon of choice is a loaded word. Christian Science Monitor, July 31, 2001, p. 1.
39. The war on terrorism: Is there an alternative? London Review of Books, May 15, 2002. Available: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v00/n01/mult02_.html.
40. For the most comprehensive recent discussion of the definition of terrorism, see especially pp. 4-20 in Richardson, Louise. 2006. What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Enemy, Containing the Threat. New York: Random House.
41. When terrorism is considered to be an international crime, the perpetrator can be tried under the principle of universal jurisdiction. A number of the international treaties on terrorism provide for universal jurisdiction. Cassese, Antonio. 2001. International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 246.
42. Maddocks, Melvin. "Terrorist"-A bomb-thrower of a word. Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 17, 1980, Opinion and Commentary, p. 23.
43. Jenkins, Brian Michael. Where I draw the line. Christian Science Monitor, May 1, 2006. Available: http://www.csmonitor.com/specials/terrorism/lite/expert.html.
44. The war on terrorism: Is there an alternative?
45. Auchmutey, Jim. The power of language. Atlanta Journal and Constitution, Oct. 21, 2001, p. 1D.
46. Furstenberg, François. Bush's dangerous liaisons. New York Times, Oct. 28, 2007. Available:http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/28/opinion/28furstenberg.html?e i=5087&em=&en=62eaa390a911d2d4&ex=1193803200&pagewanted= print.
47. Bogaev, Barbara, and Geoff Nunberg. History of the term "terrorism." Fresh Air, NPR, Oct. 5, 2001.
48. Rice, Condoleezza. Dr. Rice addresses war on terror. Available: http://www. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/08/print/20040819-5.html.
49. CNN.com. You are either with us or against us. Available: http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/11/06/gen.attack.on.terror/.
50. The White House. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/.
51. For more on this point, see Mohamedou, Mohammad-Mahmoud O. Non-linearity of engagement: Transnational armed groups, international law, and the conflict between al Qaeda and the United States. Available: http://www.hpcr.org/pdfs/Non-Linearity_ of_Engagement.pdf, pp. 17, 19.
52. Anderson, Sean, and Stephen Sloan. 2002. Historical Dictionary of Terrorism. London:Scarecrow Press, p. 1.
53. Jenkins, in Whittaker, D. J., ed. 2001. The Terrorism Reader. London: Routledge, p. 8.
54. Perez-Rivas, Manuel. Bush vows to rid the world of "evil-doers." Available: http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.bush.terrorism/.
55. Stevenson, Richard. Bush, in Britain, urges Europeans to fight terror. New York Times, Nov. 20, 2003, p. A1.
56. The war on terrorism: Is there an alternative?
57. President discusses global war on terror. Sept. 5, 2006. Available: http://www. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060905-4.html. The insert "[Caliphate]" appears in the transcript released on the White House website. It is not an addition of the author.
58. Richardson. What Terrorists Want, p. 193.
59. The war on terrorism: Is there an alternative?
60. Simpson, Cam. Terror pipeline flows to Pakistan. Chicago Tribune, Aug. 12, 2006.
61. Mueller, John. 2007. Overblown: How Politicians and the Terrorism Industry Inflate National Security Threats, and Why We Believe Them. New York: Simon & Schuster.
62. O'Brien, Conor Cruise. 1983. Terrorism Under Democratic Conditions: The Case of the IRA. In Martha Crenshaw, ed. Terrorism, Legitimacy, and Power: The Consequences of Political Violence. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press, pp. 91-104.
63. Richardson. What Terrorists Want, p. 193.
64. Understanding terrorism: A Harvard Magazine roundtable. Harvard Magazine ( Jan.-Feb. 2002), p. 38.
65. Burke, Jason. "Islamism" has no place in terror's lexicon. Observer, Aug. 26, 2007. Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,,2156384,00.html.
66. Video clip of President George W. Bush's speech used on CNN's show "Anderson Cooper 360 degrees," 7:00 pm. August 6, 2004. Video clip also transcribed by CNN, including transcription of the word "conscious" and the addition of the parenthetical "(sic)." The White House website transcribes the word as "conscience" See President's remarks to the Unity Journalists of Color Convention. August 6, 2004. Available:http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/08/20040806-1.htm l.
67. Milbank, Dana. Reprising a war with words. Washington Post, Aug. 17, 2004, p. A13.
68. Said George Packer in the New Yorker: "In Iraq, America has run up against the limits of war in an ideological contest. The Administration is right to reconsider its strategy, starting with the language." See his article, Name calling. New Yorker, Aug. 8, 2005, p. 34.
69. Packer, George. Knowing the enemy: Can social scientists redefine the "war on terror?" New Yorker, Dec. 18, 2006, p. 63.
70. Slaughter, Anne-Marie. A defining moment in the parsing of war. Washington Post, Sept. 16, 2001, Outlook, p. B04.
71. Speech by Lord (Peter) Goldsmith, Salzburg Global Seminar, Austria, Sept. 2007.
72. Roth, Kenneth. The law of war in the war on terror. Foreign Affairs (Jan./Feb. 2004), p. 2.
73. Byford, Grenville. The wrong war. Foreign Affairs (July/Aug. 2002), 34-43.
74. The Foreign Office explained that the government wanted to "avoid reinforcing and giving succour to the terrorists' narrative by using language that, taken out of context, could be counter-productive." See Burke, Jason. Britain stops talk of "war on terror." Observer, Dec. 10, 2006. Available: http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story/0,,1968668,00.html.
75. Understanding terrorism: A Harvard Magazine roundtable, p. 41.
76. Burke. Britain stops talk of "war on terror." 79 Hall, Macer. Brown: Don't say terrorists are Muslims. Daily Express, July 3, 2007. Available: http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/12172/Brown:-Don.
77. Richardson. What Terrorists Want, p. 217.
78. Rieff, David. Brown drops "war on terror," redefining the fight. International Herald Tribune, July 22, 2007.
79. Associated Press. "Jihadist" booted from government lexicon. Apr. 24, 2008.
80. Moran, Terry. ABC Nightline, Feb. 22, 2006.
81. Barstow, David. Behind analysts, the Pentagon's hidden hand. New York Times, Apr. 20, 2008. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/20/washington/20generals.html.
82. Burke. Britain stops talk of "war on terror." 86 Pincus, Walter, and Dan Eggen. 325,000 names on terrorism list. Washington Post, Feb. 15, 2006. Available: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/14/AR200602 1402125_pf.html.
83. Marquis, Christopher. Rumsfeld warns against appeasement of terrorists. New York Times, June 5, 2004, p. A3.
84. President discusses global war on terror. Sept. 5, 2006. Available: http://www. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060905-4.html.
85. Bush speaks to nation aboard warship. United Press International, May 2, 2003.
86. Understanding terrorism: A Harvard Magazine roundtable, pp. 41, 103. Others have made similar observations. Terrorism "is a method for achieving a goal," agreed Professor Ronald Steel. "That goal is usually some kind of political change that is thwarted by other means. Terrorism is what the weak use to increase their bargaining power against the strong." (Steel, Ronald. 2004. Fight fire with fire. New York Times, July 25, 2004, p. 13.)
87. Paper chase. Jurist: Legal News and Research. Sept. 23, 2004. Available: http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2003_09_23_indexarch.php.
88. The terrorism link that wasn't. New York Times, Sept. 19, 2003, p. A26.
89. DeYoung, Karen. Powell says U.S. can balance human rights, war on terror. Washington Post, Aug. 2, 2002, p. A20.
90. Cushman, Jr., John. War's hidden cost. New York Times, Dec. 9, 2001, Week in Review, p. 14.
91. Russell, Alec. As Bush admits making mistakes over Iraq, Blair offers a new world vision. Telegraph, May 27, 2006. Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/05/27/wblair27 .xml&sSheet=/news/2006/05/27/ixuknews.html.
92. Britain under threat. Economist. Available: http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9429130 .
93. Koppel, Ted. And now, a word for our demographic. New York Times, Jan. 29, 2006, section 4, p. 16.
94. Interview with Walter Mossberg, 30 July 1993.
95. Myre, Greg, and Steven Erlanger. Clashes spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah raids Israel. July 12, 2006. Available: http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/07/13/africa/web.0712mideast.php.
96. CNN, July 11, 2006.
97. CNN, Nov. 10, 2005.
98. That presumes, of course, that one accepts the argument that WMD should be considered part of the conversation and debates about terrorist tactics.
99. See Moeller, Susan. Media Coverage of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM), 2004.
100. Please see the Appendix at the end of this book for a listing of those incidents.
101. President discusses global war on terror at Kansas State University. Jan. 23, 2006. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/01/20060123-4.html.
102. President Bush discusses global war on terror. Apr. 10, 2006. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/04/20060410-1.html.
103. President discusses freedom and democracy in Iraq. Mar. 13, 2006. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/03/20060313-3.html.
104. President Bush and NATO Secretary General deliver remarks in Oval Office. Oct. 27, 2006. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/10/20061027.html.
105. The case for democracy. Washington Post, Mar. 5, 2006. Available: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/04/AR200603 0400933.html.
106. Strupp, Joe. PEJ survey: Journalists in Iraq defend coverage-dangers continue despite "surge." Editor and Publisher, Nov. 27, 2007. Available: http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_con tent_id=1003678206.
107. Sciolino, Elaine. 10 bombs shatter trains in Madrid, killing 192. New York Times, Mar. 12, 2005, p. A1.
108. A dark day from which we will emerge stronger. Daily Telegraph, July 8, 2005, p. 23.
109. Suicide bomber kills 10 in Baghdad. NBC Nightly News, Oct. 9, 2003.
110. Bombing at Shiite mosque kills 36. Los Angeles Times, Oct. 6, 2005.
111. Carroll, Jill. Violence threatens Iraqi coalition. Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 6, 2006, p. 7.
112. BBC World (video), Apr. 14, 2007.
113. "Bombs detonated in three crowded subway trains and on a double-decker bus during the morning rush hour here Thursday, killing at least 37 people and injuring about 700 others in the deadliest terrorist attack carried out on British soil." Frankel, Glenn. Bombers strike London at rush hour; at least 37 killed on trains, bus. Washington Post, July 8, 2005, p. A01.
114. Your world today. CNN, June 29, 2007.
115. Death toll from mosque attack rises to 81. CNN, Apr. 8, 2006.
116. Al-Ansary, Khalid, and Ali Adeeb. Most tribes in Anbar agree to unite against insurgents. New York Times, Sept. 18, 2006, p. A12.
117. Barstow. Behind analysts, the Pentagon's hidden hand.
118. Bumiller, Elisabeth. Threats and responses: The White House; Bush ties bombing at Bali nightclub to Qaeda network. New York Times, Oct. 15, 2002. Available: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B01E5DE1F3AF936A25753C1A 9649C8B63.
119. Katz, Yaakov, and JPost Staff. PM: Time for UN to sanction Iran. Jerusalem Post, Dec. 9, 2006. Available: http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1164881855295&pagename=JP ost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull.
120. Musharraf vows to up terror fight after attack. Associated Press, Sept. 14, 2007. Available: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20770954/.
121. Lou Dobbs Tonight. CNN, Nov. 9, 2005.
122. Los Angeles Times, May 15, 2003.
123. Brook, Stephen. Financial Times wins newspaper of the year. Guardian, Apr. 9, 2008. Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/apr/09/pressandpublishing.
124. Bokhari, Farhan. Pakistan aims for nuclear acceptance. Financial Times, Aug. 27, 2008. Available: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1ef5db2a-7456-11dd-bc91-0000779fd18c.html.
125. Editorial. The Iranian challenge. Washington Post, May 29, 2003, p. A24.
126. Allen, Mike. Bush: "We found" banned weapons; President cites trailers in Iraq as proof. Washington Post, May 31, 2003, p. A1.
127. Barringer, Felicity. Pulitzers focus on Sept. 11, and the Times wins 7. New York Times, Apr. 9, 2002. Available: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E4D6133DF93AA35757C0A 9649C8B63.
128. Scott, Janny. A nation challenged: The portraits; closing a scrapbook full of life and sorrow. New York Times, Dec. 31, 2001. Available: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9505E7DA1730F932A05751C1A 9679C8B63.
129. To hear New York Times editor Howell Raines explain the "Portraits of Grief" series, see this online video clip: http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/national/portraits/20011207raines-v ideo.html.
130. Leon Smith Jr.: Big-hearted driver. New York Times. Mar. 9, 2003. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/09/national/portraits/POG-09SMITH.html?ex =1192161600&en=8d0016af9227324b&ei=5070.
131. Aleksandr Ivantsov: "He was my everything." New York Times. Mar. 9, 2003. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/09/national/portraits/POG-09IVANSTOF.html ?ex=1192161600&en=b6eade2b6af19334&ei=5070.
132. Scott. A nation challenged.
133. Dart Center for Journalism and Trauma. Best practices in trauma reporting: Narrative styles. Available: http://www.dartcenter.org/dartaward/best_practices/10.html.
134. Photo by Van Kesteren, Geert. Newsweek, Sept. 1, 2003, p. 21.
135. Both stories were aired on May 9, 2001.
136. Wilkinson, Tracy. Celebration of an escape turned into a death trap. Los Angeles Times, Mar. 29, 2002, p. A10.
137. Tremlett, Giles. Terror in Madrid. Mourning: Commuter town hit hardest where everyone knew a victim. Guardian, Mar. 13, 2004, p. 5.
138. Salisbury, Harrison. 1967. Behind the Lines-Hanoi. New York: Harper & Row, p. 195.
139. Two suicide bombings kill 40 in Baghdad. Washington Post, Nov. 10, 2005.
140. Richter, Paul. Door opened for new era of nuclear arms. Los Angeles Times, May 10, 2003.
141. Dewar, Helen. GOP blocks Democrats' effort to halt nuclear arms studies. Washington Post. May 22, 2003, p. A4
142. and Dewar, Helen. Nuclear weapons development tied to Hill approval. Washington Post. May 22, 2003, p. A5.
143. Walsh, Declan. "I don't think a human being can do this to someone." Guardian, Oct. 20, 2007. Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,,2195610,00.html.
144. The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. Nov. 10, 2005.
145. The Situation Room. CNN, Nov. 10, 2005, 3 p.m. See also Rita Cosby Live. MSNBC, Nov. 9, 2005, 9 p.m.
146. Butcher, Tim. Suicide bombers hit hotels in Jordan's capital. Daily Telegraph, Nov. 10, 2005, p. 16.
147. Burns, John. Gunmen kill 16 Christians in church in Pakistan. New York Times, Oct. 29, 2001, p. A1.
148. Struck, Doug. A survivor recounts horrors of N. Korea's prison camps; rebuke by U.N. Rights Commission reflects tougher U.S. stance. Washington Post, May 3, 2003, p. A20.
149. Editorial. Disinterring the truth. Washington Post, May 16, 2003, p. A28.
150. Special sorrow for the young: Israelis lament number of children killed, hurt in bus bombing. Washington Post, Aug. 21, 2003; cover photo, USA Today, July 24, 2002.
151. Moeller, Susan. "Regarding the pain of others": Media, bias and the coverage of international disasters. Journal of International Affairs (Spring/Summer 2006), pp. 173-96.
152. Bali bomb victims recalled on 5th anniversary. Reuters. Oct. 12, 2007. Available: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21261851/
153. Iraq bomber kills child and wounds 13 in playground. Reuters. Oct. 12, 2007. Available: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21261815/.
154. The entire story was: "Today, a bomb hidden among toys blew up at a playground in northern Iraq. Two children were killed, 17 wounded." Today. NBC News, Oct. 12, 2007, 7 a.m.
155. Suicide bombings become daily occurrence in Iraq. CBS Evening News, Oct. 28, 2003; Series of bombings in Iraq kill at least 40 people. NBC Today Show, Oct. 29, 2003; Violence continues in Iraq despite daytime curfew. NBC Nightly News, Feb. 26, 2006.
156. ABC's unheralded Gibson emerges on top. Washington Post. May 17, 2007, p. C7.
157. 383 stories came up for the month of October 2007 in the top digital news archive, Lexis-Nexis.
158. Yahoo! News, Oct. 12, 2007. Accessed at: http://www.news.yahoo.com.
159. Schell, Orville. Sending "liberal media" truism to the fact-checker. New York Times, Mar. 20, 2003, p. B7.
160. Welsh, Declan. 126 dead in suicide bombing as Bhutto returns to Pakistan. Guardian, Oct. 19, 2007. Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,,2194786,00.html.
161. Bhutto blames deadly attack on al-Qaeda, Taliban. Associated Press, Oct. 19, 2007.
162. Sanger, David, and David Rohde. In Pakistan quandary: U.S. reviews stance. New York Times, Oct. 21, 2007. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/21/world/asia/21musharraf.html?pagewanted =1&_r=1&th&emc=th.
163. Benazir Bhutto: "We want to save Pakistan." MSNBC, Oct. 22, 2007. Available: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21412134/.
164. Dunn, Elizabeth W., Moriah Moore, and Brian A. Nosek. The war of the words: How linguistic differences in reporting shape perceptions of terrorism. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 5/1 (2005), pp. 67-86.
165. Kull, Steven. The press and public misperceptions about the Iraq war. Words and Reflections. Available: www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/04-2NRSummer/64-66V58N2.pdf.
166. Suellentrop, Chris. Al Jazeera: It's just as fair as CNN. Slate, Apr. 2, 2003. Available: http://slate.msn.com/id/2081057/.
167. Miller, Judith, and William Broad. Germ weapons: U.S. analysts link Iraq labs to germ arms. New York Times, May 21, 2003.
168. Sanger and Rohde. In Pakistan quandary. As the Times further reported: "It was also the source of the greatest leakage of nuclear arms technology in modern times." 92 Insight Magazine, Jan. 17, 2007.
169. Schlussel, Debbie. Barack Hussein Obama: Once a Muslim, always a Muslim. Available: http://www.debbieschlussel.com/archives/2006/12/barack_hussein.html.
170. Alter, Jonathan. Newsweek. Available: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16842036/site/newsweek/.
171. Boxer, Sarah. When Afghanistan collapsed. New York Times, Oct. 2, 2001, p. E1.
172. Ehrenreich, Barbara. Veiled threat. Los Angeles Times, Nov. 4, 2001, p. M1.
173. Rivers, Caryl. When rage fuels world's "lost boys." Boston Globe, Feb. 24, 2002, p. E2.
174. Gingrich, Newt. Reflections on an America transformed. New York Times, Sept. 8, 2002, section 4, p. 15.
175. Friedman, Thomas L. Where freedom reigns. New York Times, Aug. 14, 2002, p. A23.
176. Sanger and Rohde. In Pakistan quandary.
177. Nightline. ABC News, Apr. 22, 2003.
178. Sengupta, Kim, and Patrick Cockburn. How the war on terror made the world a more terrifying place. Independent, Feb. 28, 2007. Available: http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/article2311307.ece.
179. See, for example, articles such as Rashid, Ahmed. US grows unhappier with Pakistan. Wall Street Journal, Dec. 2, 2002, p. A15.
180. Smith, Craig. North Africa feared as staging ground for terror. New York Times, Feb. 20, 2007, p. A1.
181. Dewar, Helen. Nuclear weapons development tied to hill approval. Washington Post. May 22, 2003
182. Drabble, Margaret. I loathe America and what it has done to the rest of the world. Daily Telegraph, May 8, 2003.
183. Gourevitch, Philip. 1998. We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with our Families. Farrar, Straus Giroux, 48.
184. See Moeller, Susan. 1999. Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death. New York: Routledge, especially ch. 5 and p. 287.
185. Text of President Bush's Sept. 20 speech as prepared for delivery to Congress. U.S. Newswire, Sept. 20, 2001.
186. Brokaw, Tom. NBC Nightly News, Oct. 7, 2004.
187. Adams, Noah. All Things Considered. NPR, June 4, 2001.
188. Oppel, Jr., Richard. Up to 130 killed in Iraq, drawing a Shiite warning. New York Times, Jan. 6, 2006, p. A1.
189. Daybreak. CNN, Mar. 18, 2004.
190. Kirkup, James. Britain allows Iranians in to study nuclear science at university. Daily Telegraph, Oct. 29, 2007, p. 13.
191. Conan, Neal. Progress in reconstruction of Iraq. Talk of the Nation. NPR, May 12, 2003.
192. Wakin, Daniel. Iran's chief, in Lebanon, urges quick U.S. exit from Iraq, but favors vote. New York Times, May 14, 2003, p. A14.
193. Times Wire Services. U.S. Wants Nuclear Declaration on Iran. Los Angeles Times, May 9, 2003, part 1, p. 27.
194. Conan, Neal. US-Iran relations. Talk of the Nation. NPR, May 12, 2003.
195. The House makes its decision: "Let us take this stand against terror." New York Times, Oct. 11, 2002, p. A14.
196. Anderson, Nick, and Richard Simon. Wary Congress moves toward a vote on Iraq. Los Angeles Times, Oct. 10, 2002, part 1, p. 1.
197. The Early Show. CBS News, Oct. 22, 2007.
198. Grey, Stephen. Lance Corporal Matt Croucher hurls himself onto Taliban grenade. Sunday Times, Mar. 30, 2008.
199. Oppel. Up to 130 killed in Iraq.
200. Woodruff, Katie, Lori Dorfman, and Liana Winett. Frames on children and youth in US newspapers. Delivered at "Media Matters: The Institute on News and Social Problems," Sept. 29-30, 1995, p. 6.
201. Peterson, Scott. Remains of toxic bullets litter Iraq. Christian Science Monitor, May 15, 2003, p. 1.
202. Nordland, Rod. WMDs for the taking? Newsweek, May 19, 2003, p. 30.
203. For a much more detailed accounting of how the media cover international affairs, see Moeller. Compassion Fatigue.
204. Ricchiardi, Sherry. Over the line? American Journalism Review, Sept. 1996, p. 27.
205. Favorite Jefferson quotes. Available: http://etext.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/jeff6.htm.
206. All Things Considered, NPR, Aug. 20, 2001.
207. Kurtz, Howard. For Blair and Bush, no Fleet Street credibility. Washington Post, June 16, 2003, pp. C1, 7.
208. Rycroft, Matthew. The secret Downing Street memo. Reproduced in New York Review of Books. June 9, 2005, p. 71. For a wide range of citations on the memo, see the links in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downing_Street_memo.
209. Complete text of the Downing Street memo can be found at: http://www. downingstreetmemo.com/memos.html.
210. Clark, Matthew. Why has "Downing Street memo" story been a dud US? Christian Science Monitor, May 17, 2005. Available: http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0517/dailyUpdate.html.
211. Warrick, Joby, and Ellen Nakashima. Senate votes to expand warrantless surveillance. Washington Post, Aug. 4, 2007. Available: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/03/AR200708 0302296.html.
212. A NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript. Online NewsHour. June 8, 2005. Available: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/media/jan-june05/ombuds_6-8.html.
213. Howell, Deborah. To readers, terror and war underplayed. Washington Post, July 8, 2007, p. B6.
214. The Pulitzer Prizes. Available: http://www.pulitzer.org/.
215. ABC Nightly News, Feb 23, 2006; CNN, Jan 5, 2006.
216. Okrent, Daniel. All the news that's fit to print? Or just our news? New York Times, Feb. 1, 2004, Week in Review, p. 2.
217. Peterson. Remains of toxic bullets litter Iraq.
218. Knickerbocker, Brad. US sees renewed role for nukes in military arsenal, Christian Science Monitor, May 27, 2003, p. 2.
219. Sandhana, Lakshmi. Greenery on alert. Christian Science Monitor, May 1, 2003, p. 12.
220. Bumiller, Elisabeth. Keepers of Bush Image Lift Stagecraft to New Heights. New York Times, May 16, 2003, A1
221. Keller, Bill. The Thinkable. New York Times Magazine, May 4, 2003.
222. Wertheimer, Linda. Ambassador Wendy Sherman of the Albright Group, and Anthony Cordesman of the Center for Strategic & International Studies discuss containment strategies of nuclear weapons programs. Saturday Weekend Edition, NPR, May 10, 2003.
223. For a fuller discussion of US and UK media coverage of WMD, see Moeller. Media Coverage of Weapons of Mass Destruction.
224. Note, however, that these raw numbers don't capture the length of the stories or where they appeared in the print periodical or in the newscast. The figures do, however, give a rough sense of how important the news outlet considered the story, especially in comparison to the coverage the outlet gave to other events.
225. Hawkins, Scott A., Stephen J. Hoch, and Joan Meyers-Levy. Low-involvement learning: Repetition and coherence in familiarity and belief. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 11/1 (2001), pp. 1-11.
226. Hasher, L., D. Goldstein, and T. Toppino. Frequency and the conference of referential validity. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16 (1977), pp. 107-12.
227. Begg, I. M., A. Anas, and S. Farinacci. Dissociation of processes in belief: Source recollection, testimonial familiarity, and the illusion of truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121/4 (1992), pp. 446-58
228. Quoted in Vedantam. Persistence of myths could alter public policy approach.
229. Quoted in Passaro, Vince. Dangerous Don DeLillo, New York Times Magazine, May 19, 1991. DeLillo is the author of the 2007 novel Falling Man-a book that takes its title from Richard Drew's photograph of the man who fell from the North Tower of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.
230. NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript. Online NewsHour. June 10, 2005. Available:http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/jan-june05/kristof_6-10. html.
231. UN: Violence in DR Congo "beyond rape." RTE News, July 30, 2007. Available:http://www.rte.ie/news/2007/0730/rape.html.
232. Charlie Rose Show. PBS, Mar. 28, 2005.
233. Day, Julia. How the tsunami hogged the headlines. Guardian Unlimited, Mar. 11, 2005.
234. Von Gruber, Pamela. Special report. Emergency disaster response: The impact of the media, the military, and time. Defense & Foreign Affairs Special Analysis, June 16, 2005.
235. Charlie Rose Show. PBS, Dec. 22, 2005.
236. Moeller, Susan. 1989. Shooting War: Photography and the American Experience of Combat. New York: Basic Books.
237. This quote and others below related to media coverage of twentieth-century war come from Moeller. Shooting War.
238. Robertson, Lori. "We have a breaking story . . ." American Journalism Review (Oct. 2001). Available: http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=49.
239. Shales, Tom. On television, the unimaginable story unfolds. Washington Post, Sept. 12, 2001.
240. King, Larry. Where Were You on 9-11? Larry King Weekend. CNN, Sept. 7, 2002. Available: http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0209/07/lklw.00.html.
241. Both Jennings and Fisher quoted in Sullivan, Patricia. ABE news anchor was a voice of the world. Washington Post, Aug. 8, 2005.
242. Palser, Barb. Not so bad. American Journalism Review (Nov. 2001). Available:http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=2375.
243. Basheda, Valarie. An unforgettable picture. American Journalism Review (Oct. 2001). Available: http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=52.
244. Howe, Peter. Richard Drew. Digital Journalist (2001). Available: http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0110/drew.htm.
245. Tugend, Alina. The simple act of getting to work was an ordeal. American Journalism Review (Oct. 2001). Available: http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=51.
246. Junod. The falling man.
247. Interview with Jonathan Munro, London, July 29, 2004.
248. Junod. The falling man.
249. Rutenberg, Jim, and Felicity Barringer. After the attacks: The ethics. News media try to sort out policy on graphic images. New York Times, Sept. 13, 2001.
250. Halstead, Dirck. Bill Biggart's final exposures. Digital Journalist. (2001). Available:http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0111/biggart_intro.htm.
251. This quotation comes from an interview conducted with the firefighters by Record reporter Jeannine Clegg two days after 9/11. The three firefighters have refused all other interview requests since that time. Clegg, Jeannine. Flag-raising was "shot in the arm." The Record, Sept. 14, 2001, p. A5.
252. As quoted at http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/fireman-01.htm.
253. Mahibir, Karen. Historic moment captured in wax. The Record, Sept. 4, 2002.
254. Lisberg. Making of an image for the ages.
255. Mahibir. Historic moment captured in wax.
256. Edelson, Mark, and Sarah Franquet. Why didn't this photo win the Pulitzer Prize? Palm Beach Post, Apr. 27, 2002, p. 1E.
257. El-Nawawy, Mohammed. Whose "truth" is being reported? Christian Science Monitor, Apr. 8, 2003.
258. Stephenson, Michele. Edit. Available: http://corporate.gettyimages.com/edit/source/article.aspx?article=123&page=8&bhcp=1.
259. Carr, David, Jim Rutenberg, and Jacques Steinberg. Telling war's deadly story at just enough distance. New York Times, Apr. 7, 2003, p. B13.
260. Addley, Ester. Ali's story. Guardian (London), Aug. 1, 2003, p. 2.
261. Kheiber, Faleh, and Reuters. Photo of Ali Ismail Abbas. Available: http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0304/reutersf17.html.
262. Kelly, James. To our readers. Time, Apr. 21, 2003, p. 8.
263. Interview with Jonathan Munro, London, July 29, 2004.
264. Madore, James. Putting different faces on war. Newsday, Apr. 22, 2003, p. A48.
265. Interview with Lindsey Hilsum, London, July 28, 2004.
266. Your messages for Ali. Newsround, CBBC. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/chat/your_comments/newsid_2956000/2956 519.stm.
267. Madore. Putting different faces on war.
268. Walter, Natasha. Women at war. Guardian, Apr. 17, 2003, p. 9.
269. Images noted in el-Nawawy. Whose "truth" is being reported?
270. MacArthur, John. Close encounters. Washington Post, Oct. 12, 2003, p. 4.
271. Aday, Sean. The G-rated war. The Gadflyer, Apr. 29, 2004. Available: http://stevemacek.blogspot.com/2004_05_01_archive.html.
272. See also Aday, Sean. 2005. The real war will never get televised: An analysis of casualty imagery in American television coverage of the Iraq War. In Phil Seib, ed. Media and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
273. Stein, Jeff. Jessica Lynch: The untold paragraph. Washington Post, Nov. 19, 2003, p. C1.
274. Robertson, Lori. Images of war. American Journalism Review (Oct.-Nov. 2004). Available: http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=3759.
275. McGrath, Charles. Bomb. New York Times, Apr. 13, 2003, pp. 15-16.
276. Interview with Jonathan Munro, London, July 29, 2004.
277. Others whose deaths were videotaped by terrorists included Eugene Armstrong, Kenneth Bigley, Nick Berg, Jack Hensley, Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr. (in Saudi Arabia), Ivaylo Kepov, Georgi Lazov, Fabrizio Quattrocchi, Kim Sun-il.
278. Yahya, Syed. Who killed Pearl? Newsline (Mar. 2002). Available: http://www.newsline.com.pk/NewsMarch2002/newsbeat1.htm.
279. Lane, Megan. The taboos still waiting to be broken. BBC News Online Magazine, Apr. 21, 2004. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3639939.stm.
280. Leith, Sam. Outrage as CBS shows reporter's last seconds. Telegraph, May 16, 2002. Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/05/16/wcbs16.x ml.
281. Lopez, Kathryn Jean. Airing Pearl: Reaction to CBS's decision to air the Daniel Pearl hostage video. National Review Online, May 17, 2002. Available: http://www.nationalreview.com/symposium/symposium051702.asp.
282. Pearl, Judea. Death images hide the truth of Danny Pearl. New York Times, June 18, 2002.
283. Steele, Bob. Pearl photo: Too harmful. Available: http://www.poynter.org/column. asp?id=36&aid=839.
284. Kennedy, Dan. The Daniel Pearl video. Nieman Reports (Fall 2002), p. 81.
285. Poland, David. Pearl photos: Too harmful? Poynter Forums, June 6, 2002. Available:http://www.poynter.org/forum/view_post.asp?id=2219.
286. Wright, Robin. Abductions in Iraq reflect new strategy, U.S. says. Washington Post, June 30, 2004, p. A14.
287. Smith, Lynn. Web amplifies message of primitive executions. Los Angeles Times, June 30, 2004.
288. Steinberg, Jacques. Kidnappings, beheading and defining what's news. New York Times, Aug. 1, 2004, p. 1.
289. Robertson. Images of war.
290. Smith. Web amplifies message of primitive executions.
291. Steinberg. Kidnappings, beheading and defining what's news.
292. Robertson. Images of war.
293. Lynch, Jim. Freedom, the internet and the murder of Daniel Pearl. Available:http://jimlynch.com/index.php/2003/08/11/7/.
294. See also Moeller, Susan D. 1999. Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death. New York: Routledge.
295. See Moeller, Susan. "Regarding the pain of others": Media, bias and the coverage of international disasters. Journal of International Affairs (Spring/Summer 2006), pp. 173-96.
296. The challenges of linking civic participation together with media literacy-or news literacy-is a major initiative of ICMPA at the University of Maryland. To learn more about the global efforts go to: http://www.salzburg.umd.edu,http://www.icmpa.umd.edu.
297. Leader. Spanish bombs: To die in Madrid. Guardian, Mar. 12, 2004, p. 27.
298. Editorial. The case of the missing lamb. Digital Journalist (Apr. 2004). Available:http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0404/editorial.html.
299. Quoted in Irby, Kenny. Beyond taste: Editing truth. Poynteronline. Available:http://www.poynter.org/content/content_print.asp?id=63131& custom=.
300. The case of the missing lamb.
301. Editors on Fallujah. Newsdesigner.com, Apr. 4, 2004. Available: http://www. newsdesigner.com/archives/cat_fallujah_photographs.php.
302. Robertson. Images of war.
303. Interview with Lindsey Hilsum, London, July 28, 2004.
304. Rutenberg, Jim. A nation at war: The TV watch; after days of buoyant images, reporting enters a second and more ominous act. New York Times, Mar. 24, 2003. Available: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00EED71430F937A15750C0A 9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all.
305. Kurtz, Howard. Too painful to publish? Washington Post, Mar. 25, 2003, p. C1.
306. Rutenberg. A nation at war.
307. Kennicott, Philip. The illustrated horror of conflict. Washington Post, Mar. 25, 2003, p. C1.
308. Quoted in Friend, David. A war waged in images. Digital Journalist (Sept. 2003). Available: http://www.dirkhalstead.org/issue0309/dfriend.html.
309. Rumsfeld: In the end, Saddam "not terribly brave." CNN.com, Dec. 15, 2003. Available:http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/12/14/sprj.irq.main/in dex.html.
310. Hicks, Tyler. Photograph. New York Times, Nov. 13, 2001, p. B1.
311. The day citizen media went mainstream. Last Minute Blog. Available: http://www.thelastminuteblog.com/?p=2610.
312. Terakopian, Edmond. London's darkest day. Digital Journalist (Aug. 2005). Available:http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0508/dis-terakopian.html .
313. Fremson, Ruth. Dispatches. Digital Journalist (Nov. 2001). Available: http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0111/fremson.htm.
314. Robertson. Images of war.
315. Howe, Peter. Richard Drew. Digital Journalist (2001). Available: http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0110/drew.htm.
316. Kramer, Staci D. The Sept. 11 media frenzy. Online Journalism Review, Sept. 12, 2002. Available: http://www.ojr.org/ojr/kramer/1031793726.php.
317. Quoted in Wenner, Kathryn S. Getting the picture. American Journalism Review (Oct. 2001). Available: http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=2195.
318. Herbert, Gerald. Ambush. Digital Journalist (2001). Available: http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0112/herbert.htm.
319. Filkins, Dexter. Get me rewrite. Now. Bullets are flying. New York Times, Oct. 10, 2004, section 4, p. 1.
320. Lehrer NewsHour. PBS, Mar. 24, 2008.
321. Anderson, Scott. The target. New York Times Magazine, Dec. 28, 2002, p. 50.
322. Kamber, Michael, and Tim Arango. 4,000 U.S. deaths, and a handful of images. New York Times, July 26, 2008. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/26/world/middleeast/26censor.html.
323. A related slideshow of images is available at:http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2008/07/25/world/middleeast/20080726_CENSOR2_2.html.
324. Di Lauro, Marco. To die at your children's wedding. Digital Journalist (Dec. 2005). Available: http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0512/dis_dilauro.html.
325. Ozernoy, Ilana. Introduction. Digital Journalist (2002). Available: http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0208/rh_intro.htm.
326. Lueders, Marty. How it is. Digital Journalist (Oct. 2001). Available: http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0111/lueders.htm.
327. An audio mp3 of the address is available: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkatimetobreaksilence.htm.
328. A transcript of Barack Obama's speech made in Berlin on July 24, 2008, is available at: http://my.barackobama.com/page/community/post/obamaroadblog/gGxyd4.
329. Paul Krugman. Fearing fear itself. New York Times, Oct. 29, 2007. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/opinion/29krugman.html.
330. Carr, David, Jim Rutenberg, and Jacques Steinberg. Telling war's deadly story at just enough distance. New York Times, Apr.7, 2003, p. B13.
331. Readers' Comments, There were orders to follow. New York Times, Apr. 4, 2008.
332. Speech by President George Bush, Feb. 4, 2004. Available: http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2004/February/20040204181756s sorw0.4439203.html.
333. Branch, Tayler. The last wish of Martin Luther King, New York Times, Apr. 6, 2008.
334. Bennett, W. Lance, Regina Lawrence, and Steven Livingston. None dare call it torture: indexing and the limits of press independence in the Abu Ghraib Scandal. Journal of Communication (Sept. 2006), pp. 467-85.
335. Picard, Robert. 1993. Media Portrayals of Terrorism: Functions and Meaning of New Coverage. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
336. Laqueur, Walter. 2003. No End to War: Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Continuum.
337. Nacos, Brigitte. 2007. Mass-Mediated Terrorism: The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism, 2nd edn. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
338. Palmer, Nancy, ed. 2003. Terrorism, War, and the Press. Hollis, NH: Hollis Publishing.
339. Report by Margaret Mead to the Harvard Student Council: "The Salzburg Seminar in American Civilization" (1947). Available: http://www.salzburgseminar.org/2007/history.cfm.