Identity, ideology and child soldiering: Community and youth participation in civil conflict - a study on the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in Mindanao, Philippines

Civil Wars

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 304-325

  Özerdem, Alpaslan ^a   Podder, Sukanya ^b   Quitoriano, Eddie L ^c  

^a Faculty of Health and Life Sciences   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79956256868     PISSN: 13698249     EISSN: 1743968X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13698249.2010.509566     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Chris Blattman, Jeannie Annan, Dyan Mazurana and Kristopher Carlson, The Consequences of Child Soldiering. HiCN Working Paper 22, online at , accessed 19 May 2008.
2. Amone-P'Olak Kennedy, 'Coping with Life in Rebel Captivity and the Challenge of Reintegrating Formerly Abducted Boys in Northern Uganda', Journal of Refugee Studies 20/4 (2007) pp.641-61.
3. Chris Blattman, Jeannie Annan, Dyan Mazurana and Kristopher Carlson, The Consequences of Child Soldiering. HiCN Working Paper 22, online at , accessed 19 May 2008.
4. Vera Achvarina and Simon Reich, 'No Place to Hide: Refugees, Displaced Persons, and the Recruitment of Child Soldiers', International Security 31/1 (2006) pp.127-64.
5. Scott Gates and Jens C. Andvig, 'Recruiting Children for Armed Conflict', online at , accessed 1 Feb. 2008.
6. Allison James and Alan Prout, Constructing and Reconstructing Childhood: Contemporary Issues in the Study of Childhood (London: Falmer Press 1990) pp.10-14.
7. See UNICEF, Cape Town Principles 1997, p.1, online at , accessed 12 Jan. 2008.
8. David M. Rosen, Armies of the Young: Child Soldiers in War and Terrorism (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers UP 2005).
9. Michael Wessels and Carlinda Monteiro, 'Psychosocial Assistance for Youth: Toward Reconstruction for Peace in Angola', Journal of Social Issues 62/1 (2006) pp.121-39.
10. Amone-P'Olak Kennedy, 'Coping with Life in Rebel Captivity and the Challenge of Reintegrating Formerly Abducted Boys in Northern Uganda', Journal of Refugee Studies 20/4 (2007) pp.641-61.
11. Theresa Betancourt, 'Child Soldiers: Reintegration, Pathways to Recovery and Reflections from the Field', Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 29/2 (2008) pp.138-41.
12. Chris Blattman, Jeannie Annan, Dyan Mazurana and Kristopher Carlson, The Consequences of Child Soldiering. HiCN Working Paper 22, online at , accessed 19 May 2008.
13. Neil Boothby, Alistair Strang and Michael Wessells, A World Turned Upside Down: Social Ecologies of Children and War (Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press 2006).
14. Michael Wessels and Carlinda Monteiro, 'Psychosocial Assistance for Youth: Toward Reconstruction for Peace in Angola', Journal of Social Issues 62/1 (2006) pp.121-39.
15. Brandon A. Kohrt, Mark J. D. Jordans, Wietse A. Tol, Rebecca M. Speckman, Sujen M. Maharjan, Carol M. Worthman, and Ivan H. Komproe, 'Comparison of Mental Health Between Former Child Soldiers and Children Never Conscripted by Armed Groups in Nepal', Journal of the American Medical Association 300/6 (Aug. 2008) pp.691-702.
16. See the vast literature on youth in armed conflict: Rachel Brett and Margaret McCallin, Children: The Invisible Soldiers (Stockholm: Radda Barnen 1996).
17. Rachel Brett and Irma Specht, Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2004).
18. Helen Brocklehurst, Who's Afraid of Children?: Children, Conflict and International Relations (London: Ashgate 2006).
19. Jo Boyden and Joanna Berry, Children and Youth on the Frontline: Ethnography, Armed Conflict and Displacement (NY/Oxford: Berghahn Books 2004).
20. Ilene Cohn and Guy S Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers: The Role of Children in Armed Conflict (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1994).
21. Jason Hart (ed.), Years of Conflict: Adolescence, Political Violence and Displacement (NY/London: Berghahn Books 2008).
22. Siobhan McEvoy-Levy (ed.) Troublemakers or Peacemakers?: Youth and Post Accord Peacebuilding (Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame 2006).
23. Neil Boothby, Alistair Strang and Michael Wessells, A World Turned Upside Down: Social Ecologies of Children and War (Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press 2006) among others.
24. Patricio N. Abinales, Making Mindanao: Cotabato and Davao in the Formation of the Philippine Nation-State (Manila: Ateneo De Manila UP 2000).
25. Jill Carino and Erni Christian (eds.) Indigenous Peoples and Local Government: Experiences from Malaysia and the Philippines (Manila: IWGIA 2005).
26. Jamial A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in Southern Philippines (Iligan City: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research/MSU-IIT Press 1999) pp.7-9.
27. Samuel K. Tan, Internationalization of the Bangsamoro Struggle (Quezon City: Univ. of Philippines Centre for Integrative and Development Struggle 1995).
28. The Bangsamoro people include the Badjao, Sangil, Palawani, Iranun, Kalagan, Tausug, Jama-Mapun, Samal, Kaligbugan, Yakan, Molbog and the more well-known Maguindanao and Maranao.
29. The Muslim population also lives in some parts of Cotabato, Lanao del Norte, Zamboanga del Norte and Davao del Sur. There have traditionally been high concentrations of Muslim population in Sultan Kudarat, South Cotabato, Zamboanga del Sur and Palawan.
30. The Lumad tribes include Ata, Bagobo, Batak, Bla-an, Bukidnon, Dibabawan, Higuanon, Mamanwa, Mandaya, Mangguangan, Manobo, Mansaka, Matigsalug, Palawan, Subanen, Tagakaolo, Tagbanua, Tboli, Teduray, Ubo. Other groups like the Tigwa, the Isamal, the Kamayo, and Talaandig are generally regarded as sub-tribes. The Lumad groups constitute approximately 5 per cent only of the entire population of the Bangsamoro homeland.
31. Jamial A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in Southern Philippines (Iligan City: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research/MSU-IIT Press 1999) pp.4-5.
32. Peter Chalk, 'Separatism and Southeast Asia: The Islamic Factor in Southern Thailand, Mindanao and Aceh', Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 24 (2001) pp.241-69.
33. Jill Carino and Erni Christian (eds.) Indigenous Peoples and Local Government: Experiences from Malaysia and the Philippines (Manila: IWGIA 2005).
34. Arskal Salim, "Sharia from Below" in Aceh (1930s-1960s): Islamic Identity and the Rights to Self-determination with Comparative Reference to the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), Indonesia and the Malay World 32/92 (2004) pp.80-91.
35. Jubair 1999 cited in Eddie L. Quitoriano and Francisco M. Theofelize, Their War, Our Struggle: Stories of Children in Central Mindanao (Quezon City: Save the Children, UK 2004) p.12.
36. Astrid S. Tuminez, 'This Land is Our Land: Moro Ancestral Domain and its Implications for Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines', SAIS Review 27/2 (Summer-Fall 2007) p.78.
37. Astrid S. Tuminez, Ancestral Domain in Comparative Perspective, USIP Special Report 151 (Washington DC: USIP Sept. 2005).
38. Dennis S. Erasga, 'Ancestral Domain Claim: The Case of the Indigenous People in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)', Asia-Pacific Social Science Review 8/1 (2008) pp.33-44. This displacement and marginalisation was exacerbated under American rule through the passage of restrictive and exclusive legislation such as the Land Registration Act (1902), the Philippine Commission Act 718 (1903), the Public Land Act (1905). These legislative measures were reinforced by large-scale resettlement drives beginning in 1911 together with economic variables which resulted in displacement, most prominently, introduction of the plantation economy such as rubber and coconut plantations in Basilan and Zamboanga. These processes of demographic reorganisation continued under the post-colonial Philippine government till the 1960s and significantly altered the demographic map of Mindanao and accompanying property ownership and governance institutions.
39. See Astrid S. Tuminez, 'This Land is Our Land: Moro Ancestral Domain and its Implications for Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines', SAIS Review 27/2 (Summer-Fall 2007) esp. pp.79-80.
40. Eddie L. Quitoriano and Francisco M. Theofelize, Their War, Our Struggle: Stories of Children in Central Mindanao (Quezon City: Save the Children, UK 2004) p.12.
41. The beginnings of ASG are traced back to training camps in Afghanistan during the 1980s. In 1987, Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani travelled to Pakistan and made contact with Osama bin Laden, Abdur Rab Rasul Sayaaf, and Ramzi Yousef. The experience introduced Janjalani to jihadist ideology, and motivated him to start a jihadist group in the Philippines. From its inception, ASG defined itself according to its ethnic Moro identity, but its goals extended further than independence.
42. Robert Muggah, Assessing the Prospects for DDR of the MILF in Mindanao: A Desk Review and Evaluation for the UNDP (NY/Manila: UNDP 2004).
43. See the latest poverty statistics of the Philippines at their official website, , accessed 13 Sept. 2009.
44. Ted C. Rivera, Landlords and Capitalists: Class, Family and State in Philippine Manufacturing (Quezon City: UP Centre for Integrative and Development Studies and Univ. of the Philippines Press 1994).
45. For further literature on elites and power monopolies in the Philippines see, Eric U. Gutierrez, All in the Family: A Study of Elites and Power Relations in the Philippines (Quezon City: Institute for Popular Democracy 1992).
46. Peter Krinks, The Economy of the Philippines: Elites, Inequalities and Economic Restructuring (London: Routledge Studies in the Growth Economies of Asia 2002).
47. Moshe Yegar, Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar (NY, Lexington Books 2002).
48. and Alfred W. McCoy, Kris Olds, R. Anderson Sutton, and Thongchai Winichakul, An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the Philippines, New Perspectives in Southeast Asian Studies (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press 2009) among others.
49. Zachary Abuza, 'The Moro Islamic Liberation Front at 20: State of the Revolution', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28/6 (2005) pp.453-79.
50. Zachary Abuza, 'The Philippine Peace Process: Too Soon to Claim a Settlement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front?', The Jebsen Center for Counter-Terrorism Studies Research Briefing Series 3/3 (2008).
51. Charles Donnelly, 'Terrorism in the Southern Philippines: Contextualising the Abu Sayyaf Group as an Islamic Secessionist Organization' (2004), online at (accessed 10 Oct. 2009).
52. Thomas M. McKenna, Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines (Berkeley/London: Univ. of California Press 1998).
53. Jeffrey A. Milligan, 'Teaching between the Cross and the Crescent Moon: Islamic Identity, Post-coloniality and Public Education in the Southern Philippines' Comparative Education Review 47/4 (2003) pp.468-92.
54. Following are camps of the MILF, namely Camp Abu Bakar as Siddique (North Cotabato border with Maguindanao).
55. Camp Bushra Somiorang (outside Butig in Lanao del Sur).
56. Camp Bilal (outside Ansar in Lanao del Norte).
57. Camp Rajamuda (Northern Cotabato near Maguindanao border), Camp Darapanan/Usama bin Zaid (outside Sultan Kudarat town, Maguindanao), Camp Omar Ibn al-Khatab (Maguindanao), Camp Badre (Maguindanao) were main centres of training and community life for MILF supporters and cadres.
58. Zachary Abuza, 'The Philippine Peace Process: Too Soon to Claim a Settlement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front?', The Jebsen Center for Counter-Terrorism Studies Research Briefing Series 3/3 (2008).
59. Zachary Abuza, 'The Philippine Peace Process: Too Soon to Claim a Settlement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front?', The Jebsen Center for Counter-Terrorism Studies Research Briefing Series 3/3 (2008).
60. Joseph C. Liow, Muslim Resistance in Southern Thailand and Southern Philippines: Religion, Ideology and Politics, Policy Studies 24 (Washington DC: East-West Center 2006), online at , accessed 8 Sept. 2009.
61. Joseph C. Liow, Muslim Resistance in Southern Thailand and Southern Philippines: Religion, Ideology and Politics, Policy Studies 24 (Washington DC: East-West Center 2006), online at , accessed 8 Sept. 2009.
62. Thomas M. McKenna, Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines (Berkeley/London: Univ. of California Press 1998).
63. E. R. Mercado. Southern Philippines Question-The Challenge of Peace and Development, Center for Policy Advocacy and Strategic Studies at the Notre Dame University, Occasional Paper Series, 1 (Notre Dame Press: Cotabato City 1999).
64. Jeffrey A. Milligan, 'Teaching between the Cross and the Crescent Moon: Islamic Identity, Post-coloniality and Public Education in the Southern Philippines' Comparative Education Review 47/4 (2003) pp.468-92.
65. J. A. Milligan, 'Islamization or Secularization? Educational Reform and the Search for Peace in the Southern Philippines' Current Issues in Comparative Education, 7/1 (2004) pp.30-38.
66. M. D. Vitug and G. M. Gloria, Under the Crescent Moon: Rebellion in Mindanao (Quezon City: Ateneo Center for Social Policy and Public Affairs/Institute for Popular Democracy 2000).
67. M. D. Vitug and G. M. Gloria, Under the Crescent Moon: Rebellion in Mindanao (Quezon City: Ateneo Center for Social Policy and Public Affairs/Institute for Popular Democracy 2000).
68. Jeffrey R. Seul, '"Ours is the Way of God": Religion, Identity, and Intergroup Conflict', Journal of Peace Research 36/5 (1999) pp.553-69.
69. Eddie L. Quitoriano and Francisco M. Theofelize, Their War, Our Struggle: Stories of Children in Central Mindanao (Quezon City: Save the Children, UK 2004) p.12.
70. Ghislaine Loyre de Hautecloque, 'Community among the Maguindanaons and other Muslim Ethnic Groups' in Charles J. H. Macdonald and Guillermo M. Pesigan (eds.) Old Ties and New Solidarities: Studies on Philippine Communities (Manial: Ateneo de UP 2000) p.92.
71. Ghislaine Loyre de Hautecloque, 'Community among the Maguindanaons and other Muslim Ethnic Groups' in Charles J. H. Macdonald and Guillermo M. Pesigan (eds.) Old Ties and New Solidarities: Studies on Philippine Communities (Manial: Ateneo de UP 2000) p.95.
72. Camp Busrah, and later Camps Bilal, Rajamuda, Darapanan, Omar Ibn Al-Khattab and Badre and Camp Abu Bakr were some of the prominent MILF camps.
73. Astrid S. Tuminez, 'This Land is Our Land: Moro Ancestral Domain and its Implications for Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines', SAIS Review 27/2 (Summer-Fall 2007) p.83.
74. L. C. Lacar, 'Familism Among Muslims and Christians in the Philippines', Philippine Studies 43/1 (1995) pp. 40-48.
75. Interview with Abdul H. T. Atar, RIDO Inc., Iligan Ccity, 27 Sept. 2008.
76. Interview with Mr Pancho Guevera, Manila, 21 Sept. 2008.
77. It appeared from group discussions we conducted that rido conflicts have proliferated largely because of an absentee government which prompts resolution of disputes and other conflicting issues through clan violence. Interview with Prof. Jamial Kamilian, Dept. of History, MUS-IIT, Iligan City, 26 Sept. 2008.
78. Philippines Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (PCSUCS), Development of a Community-Based Demobilization Rehabilitation and Reintegration (DRR) Framework for CIAC in the Philippines (Quezon City: PCSUCS 2007).
79. Rufa Cagoco-Guiam, Child Soldiers in Central and Western Mindanao, Philippines (Geneva: ILO 2002). Interview with Ms Joeven Reyes, SULONG CARHRIHL, Quezon City, Philippines, 30 Sept. 2008.
80. Mr Ryan Silverio, PCSUCS, Quezon City, 30 Sept. 2008.
81. Mr Neil Paulin, Lawyer, Iligan City, 27 Sept. 2008.
82. Interview with Ms Myriam, Director, Kapamagogopa Inc., Iligan City, 28 Sept. 2008.
83. Ms Tina Lomjlo, BIRTH-DEV, Iligan City, 26 Sept. 2008. International protocols on protection of CIAC are augmented by national provisions including but not limited to the Republic Act 7610 (Special Protection of Children against Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination).
84. Republic Act 8371 (Indigenous Peoples Rights Act).
85. and the Inter-Agency Memorandum of Agreement on the Handling and Treatment of Children in Armed Conflict. Among other legislative protections, in Nov. 2001, the President issued Executive Order (EO) 56, known as the Comprehensive Framework Program for CIAC and initiated cooperation between NGOs, armed groups and the government. The Executive Order 56 led to the formation of the Inter-Agency Committee for CIAC, composed of national line agencies of government. This Committee drafted a memorandum of agreement outlining procedures for treatment of children who surrender or are rescued by the AFP, police, and later placed under governmental custody namely the DSWD. There is no clarity on whether civil society actors are part of the EO 56 process. In fact, the CIAC does not form part of any peace talks with any group. Besides the government has also been reluctant to raise this as a topic due to the sensitivity of the issue especially given that all conflict parties are responsible for recruitment and use of children inconsistent with legal provisions.
86. United Nations, Report of the Secretary General on Children and Armed Conflict in the Philippines, S/2008/272, 24 April 2008, online at , accessed 12 Jan. 2009.
87. The Child Soldiers Global Report 2008, pp.277-78, suggests that based on a 2005 estimate, approximately 13 per cent of MILF's 10,000 members are underage, online at , accessed 14 Nov. 2008.
88. A traditional target for MILF and GRP clashes, it was attacked, burned and occupied in 2000 mainly due to its majority Christian population.
89. Interview with Ustad Karim, teacher, Madrassah Evacuation Centre, Iligan City and Focus Group Discussion, Kauswagan, Mindanao, 28 Sept. 2008.
90. PhilRights, Deadly Play Grounds: The Phenomenon of Child Soldiers in the Philippines (Quezon City: Philrights 2005) pp.37-39. These are part-time paramilitary units attached to and subsidised by the Philippine Army. It consists of local civilians led by a 'cadre' or a regular soldier from the Philippine Army (usually a sergeant).
91. Michael Wessels, 'Children Armed Conflict and Peace', Journal of Peace Research 35/5 (1998) pp.635-46.
92. Susan Shepler, 'The Social and Cultural Context of Child Soldiering in Sierra Leone', Paper presented at the Techniques of Violence in Civil War Workshop at Peace Research Institute, Oslo 20-21 Aug. 2004, online at accessed 1 Feb. 2007.
93. Neil Boothby, John Crawford, and John Halperin, 'Mozambique Child Soldier Life Outcome Study: Lessons Learned in Rehabilitation and Reintegration Efforts', Global Public Health 1/1 (2006) pp.87-107.
94. Michael Wessels and Carlinda Monteiro, 'Psychosocial Assistance for Youth: Toward Reconstruction for Peace in Angola', Journal of Social Issues 62/1 (2006) pp.121-39.
95. PhilRights, Deadly Play Grounds: The Phenomenon of Child Soldiers in the Philippines (Quezon City: Philrights 2005) p.61.
96. Focus Group Discussion, Kauswagan, Mindanao, 28 Sept. 2008 and Interview with Prof. J. Kamilian, Dept. of History, MSU-IIT, Iligan City, 26 Sept. 2008. Land reform i.e. democratisation of land ownership is not an MILF rallying point, and was never implemented by the MNLF, hence the socioeconomic distribution of land is outside the scope of the Moro struggle for homeland as embodied in the demand for ancestral domain.
97. Zachary Abuza, 'The Moro Islamic Liberation Front at 20: State of the Revolution', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28/6 (2005) pp.453-79.
98. Alpaslan Özerdem, Post-war Recovery: Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (London: I.B. Tauris 2008).
99. Alpaslan Özerdem and Sukanya Podder, Reinsertion Assistance and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in War to Peace Transitions, Thematic Working Paper 4 (Univ. of Bradford, UK: Centre for International Cooperation and Security July 2008) pp.12-13.
100. Simon Roughneen, 'Peace dances in the Philippines', online at , accessed 12 Sept. 2009.
101. Online at , accessed 1 Dec. 2009.