Teaching between the Cross and the Crescent Moon: Islamic Identity, Postcoloniality, and Public Education in the Southern Philippines

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 47, Issue 4, 2003, Pages

  Milligan, Jeffrey Ayala ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1842843776     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3542152     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Leela Gandhi, Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), pp. 1-22; Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly, "Introduction: The Four Faces of Colonialism," in Education and the Colonial Experience, ed. Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly, 2d ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1984), pp. 1-5; John Liu, "Towards an Understanding of the Internal Colonial Model," in Postcolonialism: Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies, ed. Diana Brydon (New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 1347-64.
2. Leela Gandhi, Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), pp. 1-22; Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly, "Introduction: The Four Faces of Colonialism," in Education and the Colonial Experience, ed. Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly, 2d ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1984), pp. 1-5; John Liu, "Towards an Understanding of the Internal Colonial Model," in Postcolonialism: Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies, ed. Diana Brydon (New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 1347-64.
3. Leela Gandhi, Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), pp. 1-22; Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly, "Introduction: The Four Faces of Colonialism," in Education and the Colonial Experience, ed. Philip G. Altbach and Gail P. Kelly, 2d ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1984), pp. 1-5; John Liu, "Towards an Understanding of the Internal Colonial Model," in Postcolonialism: Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies, ed. Diana Brydon (New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 1347-64.
4. Michel Foucault, A History of Sexuality, vol. 1 (New York: Vintage, 1990).
5. Cesar Adib Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Manila: University of the Philippines Press, 1999).
6. Ibid.; Thomas M. McKenna, Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines (Manila: Anvil, 1998).
7. Ibid.; Thomas M. McKenna, Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines (Manila: Anvil, 1998).
8. Gyan Prakash, ed., After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), p. 3.
9. Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (New York: Ballentine, 1989).
10. Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983).
11. Peter Gordon Gowing, Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos, 1899-1920 (Manila: New Day, 1983).
12. Peter Gordon Gowing, "Moros and Indians: Commonalities of Purpose, Policy and Practice in American Government of Two Hostile Subject Peoples," Dansalan Research Center Occasional Papers, no. 6 (Marawi City, Philippines: Dansalan College Research Center, January 1977).
13. Liu (n. 1 above).
14. Thayil J. George, Revolt in Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1980).
15. The provision of local autonomy without the financial autonomy necessary to carry out programs is one means of maintaining the political dependency of the internal colony. See Liu, p. 1353.
16. Marites Danguilan Vitug and Glenda M. Gloria, Under the Crescent Moon: Rebellion in Mindanao (Manila: Ateneo Center for Social Policy and Public Affairs/Institute for Popular Democracy, 2000).
17. Majul (n. 3 above).
18. Jamail A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines (Iligan City, Philippines: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research, 1999), pp. 115-22; G. Carter Bentley, "The Evolution of Muslim-Christian Relations in the Lanao Region, Philippines," Dansalan Quarterly 3, no. 1 (April 1982): 127-87; Jainal D. Rasul, "Muslim-Christian Relations at the Grassroots Level," Dansalan Quarterly 5, no. 3 (April 1984): 137-56; Stuart Schlegel, "Muslim-Christian Conflict in the Philippine South," Mindanaw (July-September 1986), pp. 20-26; Filipinas Foundation, Philippine Majority-Minority Relations and Ethnic Attitudes (Makati, Philippines: Filipinas Foundation, 1971), pp. 117-207.
19. Jamail A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines (Iligan City, Philippines: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research, 1999), pp. 115-22; G. Carter Bentley, "The Evolution of Muslim-Christian Relations in the Lanao Region, Philippines," Dansalan Quarterly 3, no. 1 (April 1982): 127-87; Jainal D. Rasul, "Muslim-Christian Relations at the Grassroots Level," Dansalan Quarterly 5, no. 3 (April 1984): 137-56; Stuart Schlegel, "Muslim-Christian Conflict in the Philippine South," Mindanaw (July-September 1986), pp. 20-26; Filipinas Foundation, Philippine Majority-Minority Relations and Ethnic Attitudes (Makati, Philippines: Filipinas Foundation, 1971), pp. 117-207.
20. Jamail A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines (Iligan City, Philippines: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research, 1999), pp. 115-22; G. Carter Bentley, "The Evolution of Muslim-Christian Relations in the Lanao Region, Philippines," Dansalan Quarterly 3, no. 1 (April 1982): 127-87; Jainal D. Rasul, "Muslim-Christian Relations at the Grassroots Level," Dansalan Quarterly 5, no. 3 (April 1984): 137-56; Stuart Schlegel, "Muslim-Christian Conflict in the Philippine South," Mindanaw (July-September 1986), pp. 20-26; Filipinas Foundation, Philippine Majority-Minority Relations and Ethnic Attitudes (Makati, Philippines: Filipinas Foundation, 1971), pp. 117-207.
21. Jamail A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines (Iligan City, Philippines: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research, 1999), pp. 115-22; G. Carter Bentley, "The Evolution of Muslim-Christian Relations in the Lanao Region, Philippines," Dansalan Quarterly 3, no. 1 (April 1982): 127-87; Jainal D. Rasul, "Muslim-Christian Relations at the Grassroots Level," Dansalan Quarterly 5, no. 3 (April 1984): 137-56; Stuart Schlegel, "Muslim-Christian Conflict in the Philippine South," Mindanaw (July-September 1986), pp. 20-26; Filipinas Foundation, Philippine Majority-Minority Relations and Ethnic Attitudes (Makati, Philippines: Filipinas Foundation, 1971), pp. 117-207.
22. Jamail A. Kamlian, Bangsamoro Society and Culture: A Book of Readings on Peace and Development in the Southern Philippines (Iligan City, Philippines: Iligan Center for Peace Education and Research, 1999), pp. 115-22; G. Carter Bentley, "The Evolution of Muslim-Christian Relations in the Lanao Region, Philippines," Dansalan Quarterly 3, no. 1 (April 1982): 127-87; Jainal D. Rasul, "Muslim-Christian Relations at the Grassroots Level," Dansalan Quarterly 5, no. 3 (April 1984): 137-56; Stuart Schlegel, "Muslim-Christian Conflict in the Philippine South," Mindanaw (July-September 1986), pp. 20-26; Filipinas Foundation, Philippine Majority-Minority Relations and Ethnic Attitudes (Makati, Philippines: Filipinas Foundation, 1971), pp. 117-207.
23. Dominic Abrams and Michael A. Hogg, "An Introduction to the Social Identity Approach," in Social Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances, ed. Dominic Abrams and Michael Hogg (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990), p. 2.
24. I b i d.
25. See, e.g., Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (New York: Orion Press, 1965); and Paulo Friere, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Continuum, 1990).
26. See, e.g., Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (New York: Orion Press, 1965); and Paulo Friere, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Continuum, 1990).
27. Kenneth E. Bauzon, Liberalism and the Quest for Islamic Identity in the Philippines (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1991).
28. George (n. 11 above).
29. McKenna (n. 4 above).
30. Gilles Kepel, The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), p. 34; Muhammad Khalid Masud, "Introduction," in Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablighi Jama'at as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal, ed. Muhammad Khalid Masud (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
31. Gilles Kepel, The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), p. 34; Muhammad Khalid Masud, "Introduction," in Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablighi Jama'at as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal, ed. Muhammad Khalid Masud (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
32. Manaros Boransing, Federico V. Magdalena, and Luis Q. Lacar, The Madrasah Institution in the Philippines: Historical and Cultural Perspectives (Iligan City, Philippines: Toyota Foundation, 1987).
33. Mona Abaza, "Madrasah," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. John L. Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 13-16.
34. Isma'il R. Al Faruqi, Islam (Niles, Ill.: Argus Communications, 1984), pp. 19-34.
35. Abrams and Hogg (n. 16 above), p. 3.
36. Philosopher of religion Cornel West argues that this is one function of all religious faiths. See Cornel West, The American Evasion of Philosophy: A Genealogy of Pragmatism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), pp. 211-42.
37. Esmail R. Disoma, The Meranao: A Study of Their Practices and Beliefs (Marawi City, Philippines: Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Extensions, Mindanao State University, 1999), pp. 1-3.
38. Ibid.; Nagasura T. Madale, interview with the author, July 10, 1999.
39. Ibid.; Nagasura T. Madale, interview with the author, July 10, 1999.
40. Carlton L. Riemer, "Maranao Maratabat and the Concepts of Pride, Honor, and Self Esteem," Dansalan Quarterly 8, no. 4 (July 1987): 125-80; Mamitua Saber, Mauyag Tamano, and Charles K. Warriner, "The Maratabat of the Maranao," in The Maranao, ed. Mamitua Saber and Abdullah T. Madale (Manila: Solidaridad, 1975).
41. Carlton L. Riemer, "Maranao Maratabat and the Concepts of Pride, Honor, and Self Esteem," Dansalan Quarterly 8, no. 4 (July 1987): 125-80; Mamitua Saber, Mauyag Tamano, and Charles K. Warriner, "The Maratabat of the Maranao," in The Maranao, ed. Mamitua Saber and Abdullah T. Madale (Manila: Solidaridad, 1975).
42. Disoma; Majul (n. 3 above); Peter Gordon Gowing, "How Muslim Are the Muslim Filipinos?" in Muslim Filipinos, ed. Peter Gordon Gowing and Robert McAmis (Manila: New Day, 1974).
43. Disoma; Majul (n. 3 above); Peter Gordon Gowing, "How Muslim Are the Muslim Filipinos?" in Muslim Filipinos, ed. Peter Gordon Gowing and Robert McAmis (Manila: New Day, 1974).
44. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, art. 14, sec. 3(2); Department of Education, Culture and Sports, Bureau of Secondary Education, Manual of Information on Secondary Education (Manila: Department of Education, Culture and Sports Bureau of Secondary Education, 1993), p. 35; Patricia Licuanan, "A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People - Building a Nation," in Values in Philippine Culture and Education, ed. Manuel B. Dy (Washington, D.C.: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 1994).
45. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, art. 14, sec. 3(2); Department of Education, Culture and Sports, Bureau of Secondary Education, Manual of Information on Secondary Education (Manila: Department of Education, Culture and Sports Bureau of Secondary Education, 1993), p. 35; Patricia Licuanan, "A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People - Building a Nation," in Values in Philippine Culture and Education, ed. Manuel B. Dy (Washington, D.C.: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 1994).
46. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, art. 14, sec. 3(2); Department of Education, Culture and Sports, Bureau of Secondary Education, Manual of Information on Secondary Education (Manila: Department of Education, Culture and Sports Bureau of Secondary Education, 1993), p. 35; Patricia Licuanan, "A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People - Building a Nation," in Values in Philippine Culture and Education, ed. Manuel B. Dy (Washington, D.C.: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 1994).
47. Renato Constantino, Neocolonial Identity and Counter Consciousness: Essays on Cultural Decolonisation, (London: Merlin, 1978).
48. Ahmad Mohammad H. Hassoubah, Teaching Arabic as a Second Language in the Southern Philippines (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1983), p. 7.
49. Salipada Saud Tamano, Educational Visions for Muslim Mindanao (Cotabato City, Philippines: Department of Education, Culture and Sports Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, 1996).
50. Salipada Saud Timano, former Regional Secretary, DECS-ARMM, interview with the author, June 10, 2000; Vitug and Gloria (n. 13 above), pp. 74-102.
51. Salipada Saud Timano, former Regional Secretary, DECS-ARMM, interview with the author, June 10, 2000; Vitug and Gloria (n. 13 above), pp. 74-102.
52. Liu (n, 1 above), p. 1353.
53. For an account of the history of that centralization, see Douglas Foley, "Colonialism and Schooling in the Philippines, 1898-1970," in Altbach and Kelly, eds. (n. 1 above), pp. 33-53.
54. I am grateful to Dr. Malawi Panambulan, special assistant to the assistant vice chancellor for academic affairs at Mindanao State University, for this description. Audiotaped interview with the author, November 8, 2000, Marantao, Lanao del Sur, Philippines.
55. Freire (n. 18 above), pp. 57-74.
56. Michael W. Apple, Ideology and Curriculum, 2d ed. (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 32-33.
57. Dalomabi L. Bula, "Muslims in the Philippine Public Elementary and Secondary School Textbooks: A Content Analysis, Dansalan Quarterly 10, no. 3-4 (April-July 1989): 122-96.
58. Rudy Rodil, "Remarks on Textbooks Used by a Private School in Iligan for Grades 3, 5 and 6" (unpublished manuscript); Basher D. Salic, "A Content Analysis of Instructional Materials in Philippine History: Towards Utilization of Muslim History in Social Studies I" (master's thesis, University of the Philippines, 1990).
59. Rudy Rodil, "Remarks on Textbooks Used by a Private School in Iligan for Grades 3, 5 and 6" (unpublished manuscript); Basher D. Salic, "A Content Analysis of Instructional Materials in Philippine History: Towards Utilization of Muslim History in Social Studies I" (master's thesis, University of the Philippines, 1990).
60. For an account of curriculum as a tool for colonial domination, see John Willinsky, Learning to Divide the World: Education at Empire's End (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).
61. Sonia M. Zaide, Philippine History and Government, 4th ed. (Quezon City: All Nations Publishing, 1999), p. 241.
62. Antonio Isidro, "Education in the Muslim Regions," in Muslim Philippines, ed. Antonio Isidro and Mamitua Saber (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1968), p. 95.
63. National Statistical Coordination Board, 1999 Philippine Statistical Yearbook (Makati City, Philippines: National Statistical Coordination Board, 1999), p. 10/1-10/24; National Statistics Office Lanao del Sur Provincial Profile (Manila: National Statistics Office, 1990); Eduardo C. Tadem, "The Political Economy of Mindanao: An Overview," in Mindanao: Land of Unfulfilled Promise, ed. Mark Turner, R J. May, and Lulu Respall Turner (Manila: New Day, 1992), pp. 7-30.
64. National Statistical Coordination Board, 1999 Philippine Statistical Yearbook (Makati City, Philippines: National Statistical Coordination Board, 1999), p. 10/1-10/24; National Statistics Office Lanao del Sur Provincial Profile (Manila: National Statistics Office, 1990); Eduardo C. Tadem, "The Political Economy of Mindanao: An Overview," in Mindanao: Land of Unfulfilled Promise, ed. Mark Turner, R J. May, and Lulu Respall Turner (Manila: New Day, 1992), pp. 7-30.
65. National Statistical Coordination Board, 1999 Philippine Statistical Yearbook (Makati City, Philippines: National Statistical Coordination Board, 1999), p. 10/1-10/24; National Statistics Office Lanao del Sur Provincial Profile (Manila: National Statistics Office, 1990); Eduardo C. Tadem, "The Political Economy of Mindanao: An Overview," in Mindanao: Land of Unfulfilled Promise, ed. Mark Turner, R J. May, and Lulu Respall Turner (Manila: New Day, 1992), pp. 7-30.
66. Nuraida [pseud.], interview with the author, November 13, 2000, Siawadatu, Lanao del Sur, Philippines.
67. On the psychological resistance to colonialism, see Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism, trans. Haakon Chevaliar (New York: Grove, 1965), p. 63.
68. Franz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1967).
69. Abrams and Hogg (n. 16 above), pp. 4-5; Gandhi (n. 1 above), pp. 20-21. For an example of the mediating role of such "successful" individuals in the Filipino Muslim context, see Mamitua Saber, ed., "Special Issue: Marginal Leadership in a Culture-Contact Situation," Mindanao Journal 18 (July-October 1991).
70. Abrams and Hogg (n. 16 above), pp. 4-5; Gandhi (n. 1 above), pp. 20-21. For an example of the mediating role of such "successful" individuals in the Filipino Muslim context, see Mamitua Saber, ed., "Special Issue: Marginal Leadership in a Culture-Contact Situation," Mindanao Journal 18 (July-October 1991).
71. Abrams and Hogg (n. 16 above), pp. 4-5; Gandhi (n. 1 above), pp. 20-21. For an example of the mediating role of such "successful" individuals in the Filipino Muslim context, see Mamitua Saber, ed., "Special Issue: Marginal Leadership in a Culture-Contact Situation," Mindanao Journal 18 (July-October 1991).
72. After the latest round of heavy fighting between the MILF and the Philippine government, newspapers reported on Muslim men and women in Manila abandoning religiously conspicuous dress in order to avoid undue attention from police and security personal. On the impact of education on family relationships among Muslims, see Luis Q. Lacar, "Familism among Muslims and Christians in the Philippines," Philippine Studies 43 (First Quarter 1995): 42-65.
73. W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Signet, 1969), p. 45.
74. Jerome Bruner, The Culture of Education (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 1-44.
75. Lolita Junio Damonsong-Rodriguez, A Madrasah General Education Program for Muslim Mindanao (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University, Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Extension, 1992).
76. Macmood Maguindanao, former chair, Board of Trustees, and Ali Macarambon, former vice president, Ibn Siena Integrated School, Marawi City, interview with the author, February 13, 2001.
77. Gowing, Mandate in Moroland (n. 8 above); Charles R. Cameron, "The Schools of Moroland," Mindanao Herald Decennium Issue (February 3, 1909), p. 35-36; Alice H. Reyes and Artemio S. Rodriguez, eds., Journal on National Integration (Quezon City: Commission on National Integration, 1968); Antonio Isidro, The Moro Problem: An Approach through Education (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1979).
78. Gowing, Mandate in Moroland (n. 8 above); Charles R. Cameron, "The Schools of Moroland," Mindanao Herald Decennium Issue (February 3, 1909), p. 35-36; Alice H. Reyes and Artemio S. Rodriguez, eds., Journal on National Integration (Quezon City: Commission on National Integration, 1968); Antonio Isidro, The Moro Problem: An Approach through Education (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1979).
79. Gowing, Mandate in Moroland (n. 8 above); Charles R. Cameron, "The Schools of Moroland," Mindanao Herald Decennium Issue (February 3, 1909), p. 35-36; Alice H. Reyes and Artemio S. Rodriguez, eds., Journal on National Integration (Quezon City: Commission on National Integration, 1968); Antonio Isidro, The Moro Problem: An Approach through Education (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1979).
80. Gowing, Mandate in Moroland (n. 8 above); Charles R. Cameron, "The Schools of Moroland," Mindanao Herald Decennium Issue (February 3, 1909), p. 35-36; Alice H. Reyes and Artemio S. Rodriguez, eds., Journal on National Integration (Quezon City: Commission on National Integration, 1968); Antonio Isidro, The Moro Problem: An Approach through Education (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1979).
81. Tasker H. Bliss, "The Government of the Moro Province and Its Problems," Mindanao Herald Decennium Issue (February 3, 1909), pp. 4-6; O. Garfield Jones, "Our Mandate over Moroland," Asia 20 (July 1920): 609-15.
82. Tasker H. Bliss, "The Government of the Moro Province and Its Problems," Mindanao Herald Decennium Issue (February 3, 1909), pp. 4-6; O. Garfield Jones, "Our Mandate over Moroland," Asia 20 (July 1920): 609-15.
83. General John Pershing, U.S. military governor of the Moro Province, wrote: "An endeavor is being made to bring them up to womanhood under the elevating moral influence of the American Christian woman." John J. Pershing, The Annual Report of the Governor of the Mon Province for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1913 (Zamboanga City, Philippines: Mindanao Herald Publishing, 1913), p. 32.
84. Antonio Isidro, Muslim-Christian Integration at the Mindanao State University (Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University Research Center, 1968).
85. For instance, Nur Misuari, chairman of the Moro National Liberation Front, was a former professor of political science at the University of the Philippines, and Hashim Salamat, chair of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, is an Islamic scholar educated in Egypt. See Vitug and Gloria (n. 13 above).
86. Jeffrey Ayala Milligan, "Religious Identity, Autonomy, and National Integrity: Implications for Educational Policy from Muslim-Christian Conflict in the Philippines," Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 12, no. 4 (October 2001): 435-48.
87. Liu (n. 1 above), p. 1353.
88. Gowing, Mandate in Moroland.
89. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, art. 3, sec. 5
90. Ibid., art. 14, sec. 3.2; UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines Education Committee, Values Education for the Filipino: 1997 Revised Version of the DECS Values Education Program (Manila: UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines Education Committee, 1997), p. 10.
91. Ibid., art. 14, sec. 3.2; UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines Education Committee, Values Education for the Filipino: 1997 Revised Version of the DECS Values Education Program (Manila: UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines Education Committee, 1997), p. 10.
92. Abdulrahim-Tamano M. Pandapatan, "Madrasah System of Education in the Philippines," Muslim Education Quarterly 3, no. 1 (Autumn 1985): 53-61.
93. Cameron (n. 57 above); Abaza (n. 24 above).
94. Abaza; Boransing et al. (n. 23 above).
95. Pandapatan.
96. Children in Lanao del Sur, for instance, learn to speak Maranao at home, English and Pilipino in public schools, Arabic in the madrassa, and often learn Cebuano, the dialect spoken by the majority of their Christian neighbors.
97. Maguindanao and Macarambon, interview (n. 56 above).
98. James W. Fraser, Between Church and State: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural State (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1999).
99. Barbara B. Gaddy, T. William Hall, and Robert J. Marzano, School Wars: Resolving Our Conflicts Over Religion and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996).