Toward European citizenship

Journal of Social Philosophy

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 185-208

  Besson, Samantha ^a   Utzinger, André ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79955964794     PISSN: 00472786     EISSN: 14679833     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9833.2008.00421.x     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Schocken Books, 2004 [1951]), 376
2. See also Seyla Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents, and Citizens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 49-69
3. Dora Kostakopoulou, "Towards a Theory of Constructive Citizenship in Europe," The Journal of Political Philosophy 4 (1996): 337-58, 339
4. Jeremy Waldron, "Participation: The Right of Rights," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 98 (1998): 307-37.
5. For a discussion of the democratic deficit, see, for example, Dimitris N. Chryssochoou, Democracy in the European Union (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1998).
6. See, for example, Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, Staat, Nation, Europa: Studien zur Staatslehre, Verfassungstheorie und Rechtsphilosophie (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1999), 89-94
7. Dieter Grimm, Braucht Europa eine Verfassung? (München: Carl-Friedrich-von-Siemens-Stiftung, 1995)
8. Peter Graf Kielmansegg, "Integration und Demokratie," in Europäische Integration, ed. Markus Jachtenfuchs and Beate Kohler-Koch (Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1996), 47-71.
9. Samantha Besson and André Utzinger, "Future Challenges of European Citizenship: Facing a Wide-Open Pandora's Box," European Law Journal 13, no. 5 (2007): 573-90.
10. See, for example, Paul B. Clarke, Citizenship (London: Pluto, 1994)
11. Derek Heater, Citizenship: The Civic Ideal in World History, Politics and Education (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).
12. See, for example, Ulrich K. Preuss, "Citizenship in the European Union: A Paradigm for Transnational Democracy?" in Re-Imagining Political Community: Studies in Cosmopolitan Democracy, ed. Daniele Archibugi, David Held, and Martin Köhler (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 138-51, esp. 143.
13. See, for example, Joe Painter, "Multi-level Citizenship, Identity and Regions in Contemporary Europe," in Transnational Democracy: Political Spaces and Border Crossings, ed. James Anderson (London: Routledge, 2002), 93-110, esp. 93-95
14. David Dunkerley, Lesley Hodgson, Stanislaw Konopacki, Tony Spybey and Andrew Thompson, Changing Europe: Identities, Nations and Citizens (London: Routledge, 2002), 10.
15. Thomas H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (London: Pluto, 1992 [1950]), 8.
16. Jürgen Habermas, Faktizität und Geltung: Beiträge zur Diskurstheorie des Rechts und des demokratischen Rechtsstaats (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1992), 104.
17. See, for example, Sven Murmann, Demokratische Staatsbürgerschaft im Wandel: Über unsere Zugehörigkeit zum politischen System in Zeiten pluraler gesellschaftlicher Mitgliedschaften (Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann, 2000), 42-47.
18. On citizenship duties, see, for example, Elizabeth Meehan, Citizenship and the European Community (London: Sage, 1993), 19-20
19. Ruth Rubio-Marin, Immigration as a Democratic Challenge: Citizenship and Inclusion in Germany and the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 46.
20. Carens appropriately speaks of a "psychological" dimension of citizenship; see Joseph H. Carens, Culture, Citizenship and Community: A Contextual Exploration of Justice as Evenhandedness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 166-73.
21. See Erik H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W.W. Norton, 1968)
22. Erik H. Erikson, Identity and the Life Cycle (New York: W.W. Norton, 1980)
23. It is not necessary for our purposes to distinguish between individual identity and group identity. In fact, the two identities are produced and reproduced within the same process of social interaction. See George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1934)
24. Hans Joas, "The Emergence of the New: Mead's Theory and Its Contemporary Potential," in Handbook of Social Theory, eds. George Ritzer and Barry Smart (London: Sage, 2001), 89-99, esp. 96
25. Richard Jenkins, Social Identity (London: Routledge, 1996)
26. Jürgen Habermas, Nachmetaphysisches Denken: Philosophische Aufsätze (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1988), 191.
27. See, for example, William Bloom, Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 54-75.
28. The terminology of "in-group" and "out-group" is borrowed from William G. Sumner, Folkways: A Study of Mores, Manners, Customs and Morals (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2002 [1906]), 12.
29. For a critique see Joseph H.H. Weiler, "Does Europe Need a Constitution? Reflections on Demos, Telos and the German Maastricht Decision," European Law Journal 1, no. 3 (1995): 219-58.
30. Some authors venture to say that the demos only exists within or through the democratic process, and hence the collective consciousness of belonging together to the same political body mainly ensues from citizens' political rights. See, for example, Seyla Benhabib, "Of Guests, Aliens, and Citizens: Rereading Kant's Cosmopolitan Right," in Pluralism and the Pragmatic Turn: The Transformation of Critical Theory, eds. William Rehg and James Bohman (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 361-87, esp. 363
31. Benhabib, The Rights of Others, 163-69
32. Francis Cheneval, "Die EU und der Prozess ihrer Legitimation," in Legitimationsgrundlagen der Europäischen Union, ed. Francis Cheneval (Münster: Lit, 2005), 1-26, esp. 14-17.
33. Samantha Besson, "Deliberative Demoi-cracy in the European Union: Towards the Deterritorialization of Democracy," in Deliberative Democracy and Its Discontents: National and Post-National Challenges, ed. Samantha Besson and Jose L. Marti (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 181-214
34. Justine Lacroix, L'Europe en procès: quel patriotisme au-delà des nationalismes? (Paris: Cerf, 2004)
35. Weiler, "Does Europe Need a Constitution?"; André Utzinger, "Mythen oder Institutionen? Zur Bildung kollektiver Identitäten im Postnationalen Europa," in Legitimationsgrundlagen der Europäischen Union, ed. Francis Cheneval (Münster: Lit, 2005), 235-51.
36. The tradition of social inclusion through the conferral of rights can be traced back to very early forms of citizenship rights in ancient Greece; see, for example, Uwe Wesel, Geschichte des Rechts: Von den Frühformen bis zur Gegenwart (München: C.H. Beck, 2001), 119-21
37. And for Marshall, citizenship, and above all its social element, was intended to break down class barriers; see Clarke, Citizenship, 25
38. As regards the EU, the idea of inclusion and full membership is emphasized, for instance, in: Richard Bellamy, "The 'Right to Have Rights': Citizenship Practice and the Political Constitution of the EU," in Citizenship and Governance in the European Union, ed. Richard Bellamy and Alex Warleigh (London: Continuum, 2001), 41-70
39. Kostakopoulou, "Towards a Theory of Constructive Citizenship in Europe," 347
40. Jo Shaw, "The Interpretation of European Union Citizenship," The Modern Law Review 61, no. 3 (1998): 293-317, esp. 297, 310.
41. See, for example, Ayelet Shachar, "Children of a Lesser State: Sustaining Global Inequality through Citizenship Laws," Jean Monnet Working Paper 2 (2003)
42. Please note that we differ in our use of consensual versus non-consensual conceptions of nationality from Hampton who uses this distinction to oppose ius sanguinis and ius soli (see Jean Hampton, Political Philosophy [Boulder: Westview, 1997], 217-53). Although ius soli is clearly more consensual than ius sanguinis, it is difficult to see how it may be deemed really consensual per se in the sense that people do rarely choose their place of birth.
43. See, for example, Walter Haller and Alfred Kölz, Allgemeines Staatsrecht (Basel: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1999), 8
44. Reinhold Zippelius, Allgemeine Staatslehre (München: Beck, 1994), 80.
45. A nation based on a ius soli understanding of membership is also more likely to find its common roots in basic principles of law and justice and hence to be sensitive to the requirement of so-called "constitutional patriotism" (on this notion see Dolf Sternberger, Verfassungspatriotismus. Schriften Band X [Frankfurt a.M.: Insel, 1982]).
46. A convergence between nationality laws in Europe can be observed. Roughly speaking, jus soli systems tend to become more restrictive, while jus sanguinis systems have incorporated principles of jus soli. See Patrick Weil, "Access to Citizenship: A Comparison of Twenty-Five Nationality Laws," in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. Thomas A. Aleinikoff and Douglas Klusmeyer (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001), 17-35
47. Shachar, "Children of a Lesser State," 27.
48. For a more detailed discussion of particular policies, see, for example, William R. Brubaker, "Citizenship and Naturalization: Policies and Politics," in Immigration and the Politics of Citizenship in Europe and North America, ed. William R. Brubaker (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1989), 99-127
49. Weil, "Access to Citizenship."
50. See on the principle and criteria of affectedness, Besson, "Deliberative Demoi-cracy in the European Union"
51. Samantha Besson, "Ubi ius gentium, ibi civitas - A Republican Account of the International Community," in Legal Republicanism and Republican Law, ed. Samantha Besson and José Luis Martí (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008)
52. See most recently on the all-affected principle, Richard Goodin, "Enfranchising All Affected Interests, and Its Alternatives," Philosophy & Public Affairs 35, no. 1 (2007): 40-68
53. Nancy Fraser, "Die Transnationalisierung der Öffentlich-keit. Legitimität und Effektivität der öffentlichen Meinung in einer postwestfälischen Welt," in Anarchie der kommunikativen Freiheit, ed. Peter Niesen and Benjamin Herborth (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2007), 224-53.
54. See, for example, James Bohman, "Nondomination and Transnational Democracy," in Republicanism and Political Theory, ed. Cécile Laborde and John Maynor (London: Basil Blackwell, 2007), 159-216
55. Bellamy, "The 'Right to Have Rights': Citizenship Practice and the Political Constitution of the EU."
56. See also Joseph Carens, "Membership and Morality: Admission to Citizenship in Liberal Democratic States," in Immigration and the Politics of Citizenship in Europe and North America, ed. William R. Brubaker (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1989)
57. Ludvig Beckman, "Citizenship and Voting Rights: Should Resident Aliens Vote?" Citizenship Studies 10, no. 2 (2006): 153-65.
58. On this gap in the European Union, see Veit Bader, "Citizenship of the European Union. Human Right, Rights of Citizens of the Union and of Member States," Ratio Juris 12 (1999): 153-81.
59. For further reading, see, for example, Stefan Kadelbach, "Union Citizenship," Jean Monnet Working Paper 9 (2003)
60. Dora Kostakopoulou, "Ideas, Norms and European Citizenship: Explaining Institutional Change," Modern Law Review 68, no. 2 (2005): 233-67
61. James D. Mather, "The Court of Justice and the Union Citizen," European Law Journal 11, no. 6 (2005): 722-43
62. Norbert Reich, "The Constitutional Relevance of Citizenship and Free Movement in an Enlarged Union," European Law Journal 11, no. 6 (2005): 675-98.
63. Roland Bieber, Astrid Epiney and Marcel Haag, Die Europäische Union: Europarecht und Politik, 7th edn. (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2006), 58-59
64. Kadelbach, "Union Citizenship," 9, 16.
65. Bieber et al., Die Europäische Union, 58
66. Koen Lenaerts and Piet Van Nuffel, Constitutional Law of the European Union, 2nd edn. (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2005), 546.
67. On EU citizenship duties, see, for example, Marie-José Garot, "European Citizenship and European Integration," Thinking Outside the Box Editorial Series 9 (2003)
68. Augustin J. Menéndez, "Taxing Europe: Two Cases for a European Power to Tax," Arena Working Paper WP 3 (2003)
69. Norbert Reich, "Union Citizenship - Metaphor or Source of Rights?," European Law Journal 7, 1 (2001): 4-23, esp. 20-23
70. Reich, "The Constitutional Relevance of Citizenship and Free Movement in an Enlarged Union," 698
71. Jo Shaw, "Citizenship of the Union: Towards Post-National Membership," Jean Monnet Working Paper 6 (1997)
72. Joseph H.H. Weiler, The Constitution of Europe: "Do the New Clothes Have an Emperor?" and Other Essays on European Integration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 354-56.
73. See, for example, Michelle Everson, "The Legacy of the Market Citizen," in New Legal Dynamics of European Union, ed. Jo Shaw and Gillian More (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 73-90.
74. The total number of nonnationals living in the twenty-five Member States in 2004 was around twenty-five millions, which is equivalent to just below 5.5 percent of the total population (see Eurostat, "Non-National Populations in the EU Member States," Statistics in Focus: Population and Social Conditions 8 (2006)). According to the "Second Annual Report on Migration and Integration," the number of Third Country Nationals residing in the EU was 15.2 million on January 1, 2003 (SEC[2006] 892, 3). As a result, there are roughly ten million Union citizens - or only about 2.2 percent - who actually live in another Member State.
75. See Roy W. Davis, "Citizenship of the Union⋯ Rights for All," European Law Review 27, no. 2 (2002): 121-37.
76. Piet Eeckhout, "The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Federal Question," Common Market Law Review 39, no. 5 (2002): 945-94
77. Siofra O'Leary, "The Relation between Community Citizenship and Fundamental Rights," Common Market Law Review 32 (1995): 519-54. See also Advocate General Jacobs in the case C-168/91, Konstantinidis v Stadt Altensteig Standesamt, [1993] ECR I-1991: "In my opinion, a Community national who goes to another Member State as a worker or self-employed person under Articles 48, 52, or 59 of the Treaty is entitled not just to pursue his trade or profession and to enjoy the same living and working conditions as nationals of the host State; he is in addition entitled to assume that [⋯] he will be treated in accordance with a common code of fundamental values [⋯]. In other words, he is entitled to say 'civis europeus sum' and to invoke that status in order to oppose any violation of his fundamental rights."
78. Decision C-85/96, Sala v Freistaat Bayern, [1998] ECR I-2691.
79. Decision C-184/99, Grzelczyk v Centre Public d'Aide Sociale d'Ottignes-Louvain-la-Neuve, [2001] ECR I-6193.
80. See decisions C-413/01, Ninni-Orasche v Bundesminister für Wissenschaft, Verkehr und Kunst, [2003] ECR I-13187
81. C-138/02, Collins v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, [2004] ECR I-2703
82. C-456/02, Trojani v Centre publique d'aide sociale de Bruxelles, [2004] ECR I-7573
83. C-209/03, The Queen (on the application of Dany Bidar) v London Borough of Ealing and Secretary of State for Education and Skills, [2005] ECR I-2119
84. The reasoning in Bidar has since been confirmed in the decision C-147/03, Commission of the European Communities v Republic of Austria, [2005] ECR I-5969.
85. Decisions C-413/99, Baumbast v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2002] ECR I-7091
86. C-60/00, Carpenter v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2002] ECR I-6279
87. Drawing on Carpenter, see also decision C-459/99, Mouvement contre le racisme, l'antisémitisme et la xénophobie ASBL (MRAX) v Belgian State, [2002] ECR I-6592
88. For the relation between EC law and national migration law, see also Advocate General's Opinion in the decision C-109/01, Secretary of State for the Home Department v Akrich, [2003] ECR I-9607.
89. Decision C-200/02, Zhu, Chen v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2004] ECR I-9925.
90. See Eeckhout, "The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Federal Question"
91. Jo Shaw, "The Many Pasts and Futures of Citizenship in the European Union" European Law Review 22, no. 6 (1997): 554-72
92. Weiler, The Constitution of Europe, chap. 10
93. Samantha Besson, "The European Union and Human Rights: Towards a New Kind of Post-National Human Rights Institution," Human Rights Law Review 6, no. 2 (2006): 323-60.
94. For more detail see Besson and Utzinger, "Future Challenges of European Citizenship: Facing a Wide-open Pandora's Box."
95. See decision C-168/91, Konstantinidis v Stadt Altensteig Standesamt, [1993] ECR I-1191
96. See also Advocate General Jacobs in decision C-224/02, Pusa v Osuuspankkien Keskinäinen Vakuutusyhtiö, [2004] ECR I-5763.
97. The difficulty has even increased as the ECJ's case-law has recently become more generous in granting justification for national limitations to EU citizenship rights than it would have, had these rights been invoked as one of the four fundamental freedoms (see decision C-209/03, Bidar). See, for example, Juliane Kokott, "EU citizenship - citoyens sans frontières?," European Law Lecture, Durham European Law Institute (2005)
98. Francis G. Jacobs, "Citizenship of the Union - A Legal Analysis," European Law Journal 13, no. 5 (2007): 591-610.
99. See case C-224/98, D'Hoop v Office national de l'emploi, [2002] ECR I-6191
100. case C-403/03, Schempp v Finanzamt München V, [2005] ECR I-6421.
101. Lenaerts and Van Nuffel, Constitutional Law of the European Union, 137.
102. See, for example, International Court of Justice, Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, Judgement, ICJ Reports 1970, 3
103. Nottebohm, Second Phase, Judgement, ICJ Reports 1955, 4.
104. C-369/90, Micheletti v Delegacion del Gobierno en Cantabria, [1992] ECR I-4239
105. See also Reich, "Union Citizenship - Metaphor or Source of Rights?," 6.
106. See, for example, Besson, "The European Union and Human Rights."
107. See, for example, decision C-145/04, Spain v. United Kingdom, [2006] ECR I-7917, where the ECJ acknowledges the possibility for the United Kingdom to grant the right to election of the European Parliament to non-European nonnationals residing in Gibraltar as part of the United Kingdom's demos.
108. Jean L. Cohen, "Changing Paradigms of Citizenship and the Exclusiveness of the Demos," International Sociology 14, no. 3 (1999): 245-68.
109. See, for example, Decision C-378/97, Criminal Proceedings v Wijsenbeek, [1999] ECR I-6207
110. Kadelbach, "Union Citizenship," 15.
111. See the recent European Court of First Instance's decision granting the right to diplomatic protection to all nonnational residents in a Member State: Decision T-49/04, Hassan v Council and Commission, July 12, 2006, unpublished.
112. Preuss, "Citizenship in the European Union," 139.
113. See, for example, Bloom, Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations
114. Utzinger, "Mythen oder Institutionen?," 243-44.
115. See Miguel Maduro, "The Importance of Being Called a Constitution: Constitutional Authority and the Authority of Constitutionalism," International Journal of Constitutional Law 3, no. 2 (2005): 332-56, esp. 339.
116. See Paul Magnette, "How Can One Be European? Reflections on the Pillars of European Civic Identity," European Law Journal 13, no. 5 (2007): 664-79.
117. See, for example, Wilfried Loth, "Die Mehrschichtigkeit der Identitätsbildung in Europa: Nationale, regionale und europäische Identität im Wandel," in Europäische Identität: Paradigmen und Methodenfragen, ed. Ralf Elm (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2002), 93-109.
118. See, for example, Samantha Besson, "Deliberative Demoi-cracy in the European Union."
119. See Kalypso Nicolaïdis and Justine Lacroix, "Order and Justice Beyond the Nation-State: Europe's Competing Paradigms," in Order and Justice in International Relations, ed. Rosemary Foot, John Gaddis and Andrew Hurrell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 125-54, esp. 137.
120. See Kalypso Nicolaïdis, "We, The Peoples of Europe⋯," Foreign Affairs 83, no. 6 (2004): 97-110
121. Samantha Besson, "The European Union qua Agent of Global Justice," unpublished manuscript (on file with authors)
122. Kalypso Nicolaïdis and Justine Lacroix, "Order and Justice Beyond the Nation-State."
123. See Lynn Dobson, "Constituting Which Goods and Whose Rights?," Federal Trust Online Constitutional Paper 16 (2003).
124. See Davis, "Citizenship of the Union⋯ Rights for All."
125. See more generally, Beckman, "Citizenship and Voting Rights: Should Resident Aliens Vote?"
126. See Andreas Follesdal, "Third Country Nationals as Euro Citizens: The Case Defended," Arena Working Paper WP 9 (1998).
127. The centrality of national democratic processes can be exemplified by reference to the recent decisions about the granting of rights of election to the European Parliament at national level: C-145/04, Spain v United Kingdom, [2006] ECR I-7917
128. C-300/04, Eman, Sevinger v College van burgemeester en wethouders van den Haag, [2006] ECR I-8055.
129. Gareth Davies, "'Any Place I Hang My Hat?' or: Residence is the New Nationality," European Law Journal 11, no. 1 (2005): 43-56.
130. John Handoll, "The status of third-country nationals residing on a long-term basis," in The Emergence of a European Immigration Policy, ed. Philippe de Bruycker (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 2003), 273-362.
131. Chris Rumford, The European Union: A Political Sociology (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002)
132. Gerard Delanty and Chris Rumford, Rethinking Europe: Social Theory and the Implications of Europe-anization (London: Routledge, 2005), 7-10.
133. Roland Robertson, "Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity," in Global Modernities, ed. Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash and Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), 25-44
134. Roland Robertson, "Globalisation Theory 2000+: Major Problematics," in Handbook of Social Theory, ed. George Ritzer and Barry Smart (London: Sage, 2001), 458-71.
135. David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics, and Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 32
136. Jan A. Scholte, Globalization: A Critical Introduction (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 46.
137. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990), 18.
138. Daniele Archibugi, "Cosmopolitan Democracy and its Critics: A Review," European Journal of International Relations 10, no. 3 (2004): 437-73, esp. 443-44
139. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), 17
140. Michael Zürn, Regieren jenseits des Nationalstaates: Globalisierung und Denationalisierung als Chance (Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1998), 17.
141. Reiner Eichenberger and Bruno S. Frey, "Democratic Governance for a Globalized World," Kyklos 55 (2002): 265-88, esp. 270.
142. Dennis Thompson, "Democratic Theory and Global Society," The Journal of Political Philosophy 7, no. 2 (1999): 111-25.
143. On this notion, see Andreas Follesdal, "Citizenship: European and Global," Arena Working Paper WP 22 (2001).
144. The structure of the EU is in fact best described as a multilevel approach to governance; see, for example, Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe and Kermit Blank, "European Integration from the 1980s: State-Centric v. Multi-level Governance," Journal of Common Market Studies 34, no. 3 (1996): 341-78
145. Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, Multi-level Governance and European Integration (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
146. Ibid. On various proposals and in particular on reflexive representation, see Samantha Besson, "Institutionalizing Global Democracy," in Justice, Legitimacy and Public International Law, ed. Lukas Meyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008 forthcoming)
147. Besson, "Ubi jus gentium, ibi civitas."
148. See also Carol Gould, Globalizing Democracy and Human Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
149. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 382.