What ever happened to Canadian environmental law?

Ecology Law Quarterly

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 981-1040

  Wood, Stepan ^a   Tanner, Georgia ^a   Richardson, Benjamin J ^a,b  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79954614021     PISSN: 00461121     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (553)

1. See Concern Expressed in Europe about Canada's Environmental Decline, EARTHVISION ENVTL. NEWS, Feb. 15, 2001, available at http://www.hartford-hwp. com/archives/44/210.html.
2. See TREASURY BD. OF CAN., CANADA'S PERFORMANCE 2004, at 110 (2004);
3. GLOBAL FOREST WATCH, CANADA'S LARGE INTACT FOREST LANDSCAPES 2 (2006).
4. See CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND POLITICS: PROSPECTS FOR LEADERSHIP AND INNOVATION (Deborah Vannijnatten & Robert Boardman eds., 3d ed. 2009);
5. DAVID R. BOYD, UNNATURAL LAW: RETHINKING CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY (2003);
6. Laura Telford et al., Canada's First Green Provincial Report Card, 27 CORP. KNIGHTS 40 (2009).
7. See, e.g., Simon Marsden, Why is Legislative EA Ineffective in Canada, and How Can It Be Enhanced?, 18 INT'L IMPACT ASSESSMENT REV. 241 (1998);
8. Loren Cass, A Climate of Obstinacy: Symbolic Politics in Australian and Canadian Policy, 21 CAMBRIDGE REV. INT'L AFF. 465 (2008);
9. Duncan MacLellan, Shifting from the Traditional to the New Political Agenda: The Changing Nature of Federal-Provincial Environmental Relations, 25 AM. REV. CAN. STUD. 323 (1995);
10. Barry G. Rabe, Beyond Kyoto: Climate Change Policy in Multilevel Governance Systems, 20 GOVERNANCE 423 (2007);
11. Kathryn Harrison, The Road Not Taken: Climate Change Policy in Canada and the United States, 7 GLOBAL ENVTL. POL. 92 (2007).
12. See, e.g., 2010 Course Handbook Listing Comparative Environmental Law, MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY, http://ww.handbook.rnq.edu.au/2010/Units/PGUnit/LAW853 (last updated Apr. 28, 2010);
13. Course Listing: Comparative Environmental Law, NAT'L UNIV. SINGAPORE (Oct. 19, 2010), http://law.nus.edu.sg/student-matters/course-listing/courses- desc.asp?MC=LL4013&Sem=2.
14. See Peter Christoff, Policy Autism or Double-edged Dismissiveness? Australia's Climate Policy under the Howard Government, 17 GLOBAL CHANGE, PEACE & SECURITY 29 (2005).
15. See Patrick Parenteau, Anything Industry Wants: Environmental Policy under Bush II, 14 DUKE ENVTL. L. & POL'Y F. 363 (2004).
16. See generally MARIA LEE, EU ENVIRONMENTAL LAW: CHALLENGES, CHANGE AND DECISION-MAKING (2005).
17. See Daniel D. Moran et al., Measuring Sustainable Development-Nation by Nation, 64 ECOLOGICAL EGON. 470 (2008);
18. Environmental Performance Index 2010, YALE UNIV., http://epi.yale.edu (last visited Mar. 20, 2010).
19. William Rees, A Blot on the Land, 421 NATURE 898, 898 (2003).
20. MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT, LIVING BEYOND OUR MEANS: NATURAL ASSETS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING, STATEMENT FROM THE BOARD 5 (2005).
21. See News Release: Why is Biodiversity in Crisis?, IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES (Sept. 3, 2010), http://www.iucnredlist.org/news/ biodiversity-crisis (last visited Oct. 13, 2010) (reporting that "the escalating extinction crisis shows that the diversity of nature cannot support the current pressure that humanity is placing on the planet").
22. See, e.g., U.N. ENV'T PROGRAMME, GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK GEO-4: ENVIRONMENT FOR DEVELOPMENT 6 (2007);
23. Global Environment Outlook, U.N. ENVT PROGRAMME, http://www.unep.org/geo (last visited Oct. 13, 2010).
24. A "damp squib" is anything that fails to meet expectations.
25. See Juliet Jowit, Humans Driving Extinction Faster than Species Can Evolve, Say Experts, GUARDIAN, Mar. 7, 2010, available at http://www.guardian. co.uk/environment/2010/mar/07/extinction-species-evolve;
26. see also EXTINCTION RATES 10-22 (John Lawton & Robert May eds., 1995).
27. See INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, CLIMATE CHANGE 2007: SYNTHESIS REPORT 37 (2007);
28. Gary Gardner & Thomas Prugh, Seeding the Sustainable Economy, in WORLD WATCH INST., STATE OFTHE WORLD 2008, at 3 (2008).
29. See J.R. MCNEILL, SOMETHING NEW UNDER THE SUN: AN ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF THE TWENTIETH-CENTURY WORLD 360 (2000).
30. See, e.g., G-20 Toronto Summit Declaration, para. 9, June 26-27, 2010, available at http://canadainternational.gc.ca/g20/summit-sommet/2010/toronto- declaration-toronto.aspx?lang=eng (last visited Oct. 15, 2010) ("Increasing global growth . . . is the most important step we can take in improving the lives of all of our citizens. . . .");
31. Hon. Iona Campagnolo, Lieutenant Governor, British Columbia, Speech at the Opening of the Parliament of British Columbia: Speech from the Throne (Feb. 12, 2002), available at http://www.leg.bc.ca/37th3rd/4-8-37-3.htm (last visited Oct. 14, 2010) ("Economic growth is the bedrock for prosperity. . . . It is the vital base for stability and opportunity in every community....").
32. See generally JOHN MCMURTRY, THE CANCER STAGE OF CAPITALISM (1999).
33. See, e.g., HERMAN E. DALY & JOHN B. COBB, JR., FOR THE COMMON GOOD: REDIRECTING THE ECONOMY TOWARD COMMUNITY, THE ENVIRONMENT, AND A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE (1994);
34. HERMAN E. DALY, ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS AND THE ECOLOGY OF ECONOMICS: ESSAYS OF CRITICISM (1999);
35. PETER A. VICTOR, MANAGING WITHOUT GROWTH: SLOWER BY DESIGN, NOT DISASTER (2008).
36. See Mark Sagoff, Do We Consume Too Much?, ATLANTIC MONTHLY, June 1997, at 80.
37. See U.N. DEV. PROGRAMME, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1998, at 1 (1998).
38. Expressed in constant 1990 dollar values. See WORLD TRADE ORG., WORLD TRADE REPORT 2007, at 244 (2007);
39. see also WILLAM J. BERNSTEIN, A SPLENDID EXCHANGE: HOW TRADE SHAPED THE WORLD (2008).
40. See ARISTOTLE, THE POLITICS 197-98 (T.A. Sinclair trans., 1981).
41. See HANNAH ARENDT, THE HUMAN CONDITION 28-29, 38 (1957).
42. See K.J. Walker, The State in Environmental Management: The Ecological Dimension, 37 POL. STUD. 25, 26 (1989);
43. Charles Lindblom, The Market as Prison, 44 J. POL. 324, 325-26 (1982).
44. E.g., ROBERT FALKNER, BUSINESS POWER AND CONFLICT IN INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS (2009);
45. IAN WATSON, FIGHTING OVER THE FORESTS (1990);
46. David Meyer, Protest Cycles and Political Process: American Peace Movements in the Nuclear Age, 46 POL. RES. Q. 451 (1993).
47. See Norah A. MacKendrick & Debra J. Davidson, State-Capital Relations in Voluntary Environmental Improvement, 55 CURRENT SOCIOLOGY 674, 682-84 (2007).
48. See Julie Larsen & Steven Peck, Making Change, 27 ALTERNATIVES J. 17, 19-20 (2001).
49. See Robert W. Poole, Jr., Privatizing Essential Services, in MARKET LIBERAUSM: A PARADIGM FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 205, 205 (David Boaz & Edward H. Crane eds., 1993).
50. The literature is massive. See, e.g., OLIVER LETWIN, PRIVATISING THE WORLD: A STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL PRIVATISATION IN THEORY AND PRACTICE (1988);
51. BERNARDO BORTOLOTTI & DOMENICO SINISCALCO, THE CHALLENGES OF PRIVATIZATION: AN INTERNATIONAL ANALYSIS (2004).
52. See Adding Up the Government's Total Bailout Tab, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 4, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2009/02/04/business/20090205-bailout- totals-graphic.html;
53. Canada's Economic Action Plan, GOV'T OF CAN., http://www.actionplan.gc.ca (last visited Oct. 14, 2010).
54. See Copenhagen Accord Climate Pledges Too Weak: UN, REUTERS, Mar. 31, 2010, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE62U13M20100331.
55. See Cass Sunstein, Paradoxes of the Regulatory State, 57 U. CHI. L. REV. 407 (1990);
56. Michael Moran, Understanding the Regulatory State, 32 BRITISH J. POL. Sa. 391 (2002).
57. See, e.g., PETER C. YEAGER, THE LIMITS OF LAW: THE PUBLIC REGULATION OF PRIVATE POLLUTION (1991).
58. See, e.g., Carolyn Abbott, Environmental Command Regulation, in ENVIRONMENTAL LAW FOR SUSTAINABIUTY: A READER 61, 76-85 (Benjamin J. Richardson & Stepan Wood eds., 2006).
59. See Gunther Teubner, Juridification: Concepts, Aspects, Limits, Solutions, in A READER ON REGULATION 389, 398 (Robert Baldwin, Colin Scott & Christopher Hood eds., 1998).
60. Bruce A. Ackerman & Richard B. Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law, 37 STAN. L. REV. 1333, 1333 (1985).
61. See Michael Howlett, Policy Instruments and Implementation Styles: The Evolution of Instrument Choice in Canadian Environmental Policy, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: CONTEXT AND CASES 25, 25 (Debora VanNijnatten & Robert Boardman eds., 2002).
62. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 248-50.
63. See, e.g., Red Tape Reduction Act, S.O., c. 18 (1998) (Can.).
64. See, e.g., DAVID OSBORNE & TED GAEBLER, REINVENTING GOVERNMENT: HOW THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT IS TRANSFORMING THE PUBLIC SECTOR (1992);
65. U.S. WHITE HOUSE, REINVENTING ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION (1995), available at http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/npr/library/rsreport/251a.html;
66. VOLUNTARY APPROACHES IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (Carlo Carraro and François Lévêque eds., 1999).
67. See GUNTHER TEUBNER, LAW AS AN AUTOPOIETIC SYSTEM 37-38 (1993).
68. See NEIL GUNNINGHAM & PETER GRABOSKY, SMART REGULATION: DESIGNING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (1998).
69. SEE IAN AYRES & JOHN BRARTHWAITE, RESPONSIVE REGULATION: TRANSCENDING THE DEREGULATION DEBATE (1992).
70. See Colin Scott, Regulation in the Age of Governance: The Rise of the Post Regulatory State, in THE POLITICS OF REGULATION: INSTITUTIONS AND REGULATORY REFORMS FOR THE AGE OF GOVERNANCE 145 (Jacint Jordana & David Levi-Faur eds., 2004).
71. See infra Part III.B.
72. Jenny Steele & Tim Jewell, Law in Environmental Decision-Making, in LAW IN ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION-MAKING: NATIONAL, EUROPEAN, AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 1, 14 (Tim Jewell & Jenny Steele eds., 1998).
73. See Daniel A. Farber, Taking Slippage Seriously: Noncompliance and Creative Compliance in Environmental Law, 23 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 297, 305-11 (1999);
74. Alastair lies, Adaptive Management: Making Environmental Law and Policy More Dynamic, Experimentalist and Learning, 13 ENVTL. & PLAN. L.J. 288 (1996);
75. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRACTS: COMPARATIVE APPROACHES TO REGULATORY INNOVATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE (Eric W. Orts & Kurt Deketelaere eds., 2001).
76. See Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, arts. 4, 6, 12, 17, Dec. 10, 1997, 37 I.L.M. 22 (defining four mechanisms for flexibility in fulfilling developed countries' emission limitation and reduction commitments: joint implementation (art. 6), emissions trading (art. 17), the Clean Development Mechanism (art. 12), and "bubbles" (art.4)).
77. See, e.g., Stepan Wood, Voluntary Environmental Codes and Sustainability, in ENVIRONMENTAL LAW FOR SUSTAINABILITY, supra note 36, at 229.
78. See James Crotty, Structural Causes of the Global Financial Crisis: A Critical Assessment of the "New Financial Architecture", 33 CAMBRIDGE J. ECON. 563 (2009).
79. See EU CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY: THE CHALLENGE OF NEW REGULATORY INTIATIVES (Marjan Peeters & Kurt Deketelaere eds., 2006).
80. See Cass R. Sunstein, Administrative Substance, 3 DUKE L.J. 607, 608 n.5 (1991);
81. Catherine Redgwell, Privatisation and Environmental Regulation: Some General Observations 15 J. ENERGY & NAT. RES. L. 33, 36 (1997).
82. See JOSEPH TAINTER, THE COLLAPSE OF COMPLEX SOCIETIES 37 (1988).
83. See, e.g., GARRET NAGLE, HAZARDS 117 (1998)
84. (discussing English Clean Air Act, 1956, 4 & 5 Eliz. 2, which helped to reduce the sources of the smog that had killed hundreds of Londoners in the years immediately preceding its passage).
85. See Jacint Jordana & David Levi-Faur, The Politics of Regulation in the Age of Governance, in THE POLITICS OF REGULATION: INSTITUTIONS AND REGULATORY REFORMS FOR THE AGE OF GOVERNANCE, supra note 46, at 1 (noting that deregulation, privatization and the use of market-based instruments have often, paradoxically, been accompanied by a substantial increase in the volume and scope of regulation).
86. See TAINTER, supra note 55, at 92, 115, 122.
87. Environmental mismanagement, as manifested for example by poorly designed laws, should also ultimately be viewed as a result of political, economic, and cultural factors, which Professor Jared Diamond examines in a series of case studies including Easter Island, the Maya people, and Haiti. See generally JARED DIAMOND, COLLAPSE: HOW SOCIETIES CHOOSE TO FAIL OR SUCCEED (2005).
88. See NICHOLAS STERN, STERN REVIEW ON THE ECONOMICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE vi (2007), available at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.hm- treasury.gov.uk/d/Summary-of-Conclusions.pdf.
89. See GEORGE MONBIOT, HEAT: HOW TO STOP THE PLANET BURNING 6-9 (2005) (discussing ecological and economic costs of climate change);
90. TIMOTHY FLANNERY, THE WEATHER MAKERS 233-38 (2006) (discussing costs and benefits of climate change mitigation);
91. THOMAS HOMER-DIXON, THE UPSIDE OF DOWN: CATASTROPHE AND RENEWAL AND THE RENEWAL OF CIVILISATION 77-100, 219-23 (2006) (discussing rising costs and diminishing returns from our economic model in light of declining fossil fuel reserves and the absence of easy alternatives).
92. See MARIE-CLAIRE CORDONIER SEGGER & ASHFAQ KHALFAN, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT LAW: PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES, AND PROSPECTS (2004);
93. Stepan Wood, Sustainability in International Law, in UNESCO ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS (2003), http://www.eolss.net;
94. RICHARD L. REVESZ, PHILIPPE SANDS & RICHARD B. STEWART, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, THE ECONOMY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: THE UNITED STATES, THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY (2000);
95. John Dembach, Sustainable Development as a Framework for National Governance, 49 CASE W. RES. L. REV. 1(1998).
96. See, e.g., Jaye Ellis & Stepán Wood, International Environmental Law, in ENVIRONMENTAL LAW FOR SUSTAINABILITY 343, 361-64, 373, 376-78 (Benjamin J. Richardson & Stepan Wood eds., 2006).
97. See Andrew Basiago, Methods of Defining 'Sustainability', 3 SUSTAINABLE DEV. 109, 111-19 (1995).
98. See HERMAN E. DALY, STEADY STATE ECONOMICS (2d ed. 1991);
99. Mick Common & Charles Perrings, Towards an Ecological Economics of Sustainability, 6 ECOLOGICAL ECON. 7 (1992).
100. See KLAUS BOSSELMANN, THE PRINCIPLE OF SUSTAINABILITY: TRANSFORMING LAW AND GOVERNANCE (2008).
101. On the potential symbiosis of environmental and economic concerns, see Michael E. Porter & Claas van der Linde, Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate, 73 HARV. BUS. REV. 120 (1995).
102. See Mikael Skou Andersen & Ilmo Massa, Ecological Modernisation-Origins, Dilemmas and Future Directions, 2 J. ENVTL. POL'Y & PLAN. 337 (2000);
103. MAARTEN A. HAJER, THE POLITICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DISCOURSE: ECOLOGICAL MODERNISATION AND THE POLICY PROCESS 3 (1995).
104. See Hajime Nishimura, The Greening of Japanese Industry, in BUSINESS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 21 (Michael D. Rogers ed., 1995);
105. GOVERNING THE ENVIRONMENT: POLITICS, POLICY AND ORGANIZATION IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES (Peter Christensen ed., 1996).
106. See generally JOSEPH HUBER, NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL INNOVATION (2004).
107. E.g., WORLD BUSINESS COUNCIL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEV. & U.N. ENV'T PROGRAMME, CLEANER PRODUCTION AND ECO-EFFICIENCY, COMPLEMENTARY APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 3 (1998).
108. See John Elkington, Towards the Sustainable Corporation: Win-Win-Win Business Strategies for Sustainable Development, 36 CAL. MGMT. REV. 90, 91 (1994).
109. See William Rodgers, The Most Creative Moments in the History of Environmental Law: "The Whats", 2000 U. ILL. L. REV. 1.
110. See generally JOSEPH L. SAX, DEFENDING THE ENVIRONMENT: A HANDBOOK FOR CITIZEN ACTION (1971).
111. For a Canadian perspective, see D. Paul Emond, Are We There Yet? Reflections on the Success of the Environmental Law Movement in Ontario, 46 OSGOODE HALL L.J. 219, 219-25 (2008).
112. ROBYN ECKERSLEY, ENVIRONMENTALEM AND POLITICAL THEORY: TOWARD AN ECOCENTRIC APPROACH 35-36 (1992).
113. See generally ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND THE COMMON LAW (John Lowry & Rod Edmunds eds., 2000).
114. Zygmunt J.B. Plater, From the Beginning, A Fundamental Shift of Paradigms: A Theory and Short History of Environmental Law, 27 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 981 (1994).
115. See, e.g., National Environmental Policy Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4347 (1969).
116. See, e.g., Endangered Species Act, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (1973).
117. See, e.g., Land and Environment Court Act, 1979, N.S.W. Stat. 204 (Austl.) (establishing environmental agencies and courts in New South Wales, Australia).
118. R.S.O.1990, c. C.27.
119. R.S.O.1990, c. P.13.
120. See DOUGLAS MACDONALD, BUSINESS AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS IN CANADA 70 (2007).
121. See Don Piper, A Significant Docket for the International Joint Commission, 59 AM. J. INT'L L. 593, 593 (1965). The International Joint Commission was established by the Boundary Waters Treaty, U.S.-U.K., Jan. 11, 1909, 36 Stat. 2448, to help prevent and resolve disputes between Canada and the United States over the use of boundary waters and other transboundary issues.
122. See ANNUAL REPORT FOR 2008: BOUNDARY WATERS TREATY CENTENNIAL EDITION 2 (2009).
123. Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, U.S.-Can., Apr. 15, 1972, 23.1 U.S.T. 301.
124. Agreement between Canada and the United States of America on Great Lakes Water Quality, 1978, U.S.-Can., Nov. 22, 1978, 30 U.S.T. 1383.
125. Protocol Amending the 1978 Agreement between the United States of America and Canada on Great Lakes Water Quality, as Amended on October 16, 1983, U.S.-Can., Nov. 18, 1987, T.I.A.S. No. 11551;
126. Agreement Amending the Agreement of November 22, 1978 and Supplementing Annex 3, U.S.-Can., Oct. 16, 1983, T.I.A.S. 10798.
127. Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, supra note 85, art. II & Annex 12, art. 2.
128. Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Canada on Air Quality, Mar. 13, 1991, U.S.-Can., T.I.A.S. No. 11783.
129. See Alan MacEachern, Changing Ecologies: Preservation in Four National Parks, 1935-1965, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY: ESSENTIAL READINGS 361, 379 (David Freeland Duke ed. 2006).
130. Endangered Species Act, R.S.O.1990, c. E.15,
131. repealed by Endangered Species Act of 2007, S.O. 2007, c. 6.
132. Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969, 83 Stat. 275, 16 U.S.C. §668aa(c),
133. repealed by Endangered Species Act of 1973,16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (2006).
134. R.S.C. 1985, c. 16 (supp. 4) (in force June 30, 1988)
135. (incorporating the Clean Air Act, Environmental Contaminants Act and Ocean Dumping Act, among others),
136. repealed by Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1999, S.C. 1999, c. 33;
137. see MACDONALD, supra note 83, at 71.
138. Canada Water Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-11;
139. see Who We Are: Highlights of Past Accomplishments, POLLUTION PROBE, http://www.pollutionprobe.org/Whoweare/Milestones2.htm (last visited Sept. 4, 2010).
140. See MACDONALD, supra note 83, at 71;
141. Clean Air Act, S.C.1970-71-72, c. 47,
142. repealed by Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1988, R.S.C. 1985, c. 16 (supp. 4).
143. An Act to Amend the Fisheries Act and to Amend the Criminal Code in Consequence Thereof, R.S.C. 1985, c. F-14.
144. Environmental Protection Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. E.19;
145. Clean Air Act, S.A. 1971, c. 16 (Alta.);
146. Clean Water Act, S.A. 1971, c. 17 (Alta.);
147. see HENRY C. KLASSEN, A BUSINESS HISTORY OF ALBERTA 308 (1999) (discussing the Alberta legislation).
148. See ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE.- INSTRUMENTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 189 (Bhaskar Nath et al. eds., 2002).
149. Environmental Assessment Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. E.18;
150. see MACDONALD, supra note 83, at 71.
151. See About CIELAP: History, CANADIAN INST. FOR ENVTL. LAW AND POLICY, http://www.cielap.org/history.php (last visited Sept. 4, 2010).
152. Emond, supra note 74, at 222.
153. See THOMAS RIDEOUT, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, REGULATORY REGIMES AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT: A REALITY CHECK 12 (1997).
154. See Environmental Protection Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. E.19, pt. X.
155. See Glen Toner, Contesting the Green: Canadian Environmental Policy at the Turn of the Century, in ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND POLITICS IN INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES 71, 76 (Uday Desai ed., 2002).
156. Id. at 76-77.
157. While Indigenous minorities in Australia, New Zealand, and the United States were also gaining better recognition of their rights during the 1970s, the trend was much more pronounced in Canadian law. Paul L.A.H. Chartrand, The "Race" for Recognition: Toward a Policy of Recognition of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, in ABORIGINAL TTTLE AND
158. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: CANADA, AUSTRALIA, AND NEW ZEALAND 125 (Louis A. Knafla & Haijo Westra eds., 2010);
159. Kent McNeil, The Sources and Content of Indigenous Land Rights in Australia and Canada: A Critical Comparison, in ABORIGINAL TITLE AND INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: CANADA, AUSTRALIA, AND NEW ZEALAND, supra, at 146.
160. Calder v. British Columbia (Att'y Gen.), [1973] S.C.R. 313.
161. One prominent example was the James Bay Dam, in Quebec.
162. See SEAN MCCUTCHEON, ELECTRIC RIVERS: THE STORY OF THE JAMES BAY PROJECT (1991).
163. See DEP'T OF INDIAN AFFAIRS AND N. DEV., STATEMENT ON CLAIMS OF INDIAN AND INUTT PEOPLE (1973).
164. See BENJAMIN J. RICHARDSON, DONNA CRAIG & BEN BOER, REGIONAL AGREEMENTS FOR INDIGENOUS LANDS AND CULTURES IN CANADA 3-4 (1995).
165. Id. at 56-58 (discussing the example of the Inuvialuit Agreement).
166. See THOMAS BERGER, NORTHERN FRONTIER, NORTHERN HOMELAND: THE REPORT OFTHE MACKENZIE VALLEY PIPELINE INQUIRY (1985).
167. Id.
168. Id.
169. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 225;
170. see also supra Part LB. Among these influential American statutes,
171. see, e.g., National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4370f (2006);
172. Endangered Species Act, 1973, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (2006);
173. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 1980, 42 U.S.C. §§9601-9675 (2006).
174. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 225.
175. Id. at 276.
176. See Robert Paehlke, The Environmental Movement in Canada, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND POLITICS: PROSPECTS FOR LEADERSHIP AND INNOVATION, supra note 3, ch. 1.
177. Also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. According to national polls, the number of Canadians who perceived harm to the environment to be a "very serious" issue declined from an all-time high of 77 percent in 1990 to 63 percent by April 1992.
178. See KATHRYN HARRISON, PASSING THE BUCK: FEDERAUSM AND CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 117 (1996).
179. Environmental Assessment and Review Process Guidelines Order, SOR/1984-467. Federal officials did not take the Order was not taken seriously, however, until the courts declared it legally binding in 1989.
180. See Canadian Wildlife Fed'n Inc. v. Canada (Minister of the Env't), [1989] 3 F.C. 309 (Trial Div.), aff'd, (1989), 99 N.R. 72 (C.A.).
181. An Act to Amend the National Parks Act and to Amend An Act to Amend the National Parks Act, S.C. 1988, c. 48, s. 4 (adding s. 5(1.2) ("Maintenance of ecological integrity "through the protection of natural resources shall be the first priority when considering park zoning and visitor use in a management plan.")), repealed by Canada National Parks Act, S.C. 2000, c. 32 (enacting a broader ecological integrity clause, s. 8(2) ("Maintenance or restoration of ecological integrity, through the protection of natural resources and natural processes, shall be the first priority of the Minister when considering all aspects of the management of parks.")).
182. See Philip Dearden & Jessica Dempsey, Protected Areas in Canada: Decade of Change, 48 CANADIAN GEOGRAPHER 225, 226 (2004).
183. See Front-line Environmental Officers Protecting Our Environment, ONT. MINISTRY OF THE ENV'T, http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/enviroforce/protection/ officers.php (last visited Sept. 4, 2010).
184. R. v. United Keno Hill Mines, [1980] 1 Y.R. 299, para.10 (Can. Yukon Terr. Ct.).
185. Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982, c. 11 (U.K.).
186. See Elaine L. Hughes & David Iyalomhe, Substantive Environmental Rights in Canada, 30 OTTAWA L. REV. 229, 234 (1998-99).
187. See Environmental Rights Act, R.S.N.W.T. 1988, c.83 (supp.).
188. See Environment Act, S.Y. 1991, c. 5.
189. See Environmental Bill of Rights, S.O. 1993, c. 28.
190. S.C. 1999, c. 33, pt. 2.
191. See Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1999, S.C. 1999, c. 33, s. 48 (establishing the inventory);
192. National Pollutant Release Inventory, ENV'T CAN., http://www.ec.gc.ca/ inrpnpri/default.asp?lang=En&n=4A577BB9-l (last visited Sept. 4, 2010).
193. See Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent Chlorinated Dioxins and Furans Regulations, SOR/1992-267;
194. Jerry V. DeMarco & Toby Vigod, Smarter Regulation: The Case for Enforcement and Transparency, 17 J. ENVTL. L. & PRAC. 85, 95 (2007) (reporting on the regulations' effectiveness);
195. Implementing Sustainable Practices in the Pulp and Paper Industry: A 10-Year Path to Success, ENVT CAN. (June 6, 2003), http://www.ec.gc.ca/media- archive/press/2003/030606-b-e.htm;
196. C.E. Luthe, Progress in Reducing Dioxins and AOX: A Canadian Perspective, 36 CHEMOSPHERE 225 (1998) (reporting 99 percent reduction in discharges of dioxins from Canadian pulp mills).
197. See PETER AUCOIN, THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT: CANADA IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 8-16, 198-202 (1996).
198. See JAN-ERIK LANE, NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (2000);
199. KATE MCLAUGHLIN, NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT: CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS (2002).
200. Id.
201. On these themes, see generally Howlett, supra note 39;
202. Kathryn Harrison, Federal-Provincial Relations and the Environment: Unilateralism, Collaboration, and Rationalization, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: CONTEXT AND CASES, supra note 39, at 123.
203. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 214, 297.
204. Environmental Bill of Rights, S.O. 1993, c. 28, s. 49;
205. see generally ENVTL. COMM'R OF ONT. (Oct. 14, 2010), http://www.eco.on. ca.
206. See ENVT CAN., CANADA'S GREEN PLAN FOR A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT (1990).
207. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 104 (noting, however, that this failure was due to recession, not decline in public attention);
208. see also Robert Gale, Canada's Green Plan, in NATIONALE UMWELTPLÄNE IN AUSGEWÄHLTEN INDUSTRIELÄNDERN 97 (1997) (criticizing Canada's Green Plan, supra note 139).
209. RICHARD TARASOFSKY, CANADA'S PROGRESS IN ADDRESSING THE STRATEGIC IMPERITIVE SET OUT IN "OUR COMMON FUTURE" 4-5 (2007), available at http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2007/facing-canada-progress.pdf.
210. See NAT'L TASK FORCE ON ENV'T AND ECON., PROGRESS REPORT OF THE NATIONAL TASK FORCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMY 1 (1988).
211. Resource Assessment Commission Act, 1989 (Cth), No. 94, s 5. However, the Commission was dissolved in 1992 as a cost-cutting measure.
212. See Benjamin J. Richardson & Ben Boer, Contribution of Public Inquiries to Environmental Assessment, 2 AUSTRALASIAN J. ENVTL. MGMT. 90, 92 (1995).
213. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, March 3,1973,27.2 U.S.T. 1087,1976 U.N.T.S. 244.
214. Convention on Biological Diversity, June 5,1992, S. EXEC. DOC 103-30, 311.L.M. 818.
215. Species at Risk Act, S.C. 2002, c. 29.
216. See Elizabeth Brandon, Does International Law Mean Anything in Canadian Courts?, 11 J. ENVTL. L. & PRAC. 399 (2001).
217. See generally Robert Boardman, Milk-and-Potatoes Environmentalisnv Canada and the Turbulent World of International Law, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: CONTEXT AND CASES, supra note 39, at 190.
218. See Maurice Strong, Beyond Rio: Prospects and Portents, 4 COL. J. INT'L ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 21 (1993).
219. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Sept. 16, 1987, S. TREATY DOC. NO. 100-10, 26 I.L.M. 1541.
220. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, May 22, 2001, 40 I.L.M. 532.
221. See Who's Who of Women and the Environment: Elizabeth Dowdeswell, UNITED NATIONS ENV'T PROGRAMME, http://www.unep.org/women-env/w-details.asp?w-id=223 (last visited Sept. 3, 2010).
222. See WORLD COMM'N ON ENVT AND DEV., OUR COMMON FUTURE (1987).
223. See Julie Cohen, Warrior of the Waves, 74 GEOGRAPHICAL 54, 55-56 (2002).
224. Robert Paehlke, Environmentalism in One Country: Canadian Environmental Policy in an Era of Globalization, 28 POL'Y STUD. J. 160, 163 (2005).
225. See Leigh Hancher & Michael Moran, Organizing Regulatory Space, in CAPITALISM, CULTURE AND ECONOMIC REGULATION 271 (Leigh Hancher & Michael Moran eds., 1989);
226. P.N. Grabosky, Green Markets: Environmental Regulation by the Private Sector, 16 L. & POL'Y 419 (1994).
227. See Douglas MacDonald, The Business Response to Environmentalism, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: CONTEXT AND CASES, supra note 39, at 66.
228. See Wood, supra note 51.
229. RESPONSIBLE CARE, http://www.responsiblecare.org (last visited Oct. 4, 2010).
230. See Andrew King & Michael Lenox, Industry Self-regulation Without Sanctions: The Chemical Industry's Responsible Care Program, 43 ACADEMY MGMT. J. 698 (2000).
231. See MINING ASS'N OF CAN., TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MINING GUIDING PRINCIPLES (2004), available at http://www.mining.ca/www/Towards-Sustaining-Mining/Guiding- Principles/Guiding-Principles.php.
232. See STEVEN A. KENNETT, A GUIDE TO IMPACT AND BENEFITS AGREEMENTS (1999).
233. See STEPHEN CLARKSON & STEPAN WOOD, A PERILOUS IMBALANCE: THE GLOBALIZATION OF CANADIAN LAW AND GOVERNANCE 234 (2010). The Global Reporting Initiative is the world's leading voluntary framework for sustainability reporting.
234. See GLOBAL REPORTING INITIATIVE, http://www.globalreporting.org (last visited Oct. 15, 2010). ISO 14001 is the world's leading voluntary standard for environmental management systems.
235. See ISO 14000 Essentials, INT'L ORG. FOR STANDARDIZATION, http://www.iso.org/iso/iso-catalogue/management-and-leadership-standards/ environmental-management/iso-14000-essentials.htm (last visited Oct. 15, 2010).
236. World Bank Data by Country: Canada, WORLD BANK, http://data.worldbank. org/country/canada (last visited Oct. 15, 2010);
237. see also Population and Growth Components (1851-2001 Censuses), STATISTICS CANADA, http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/101/cst01/DEMO03-eng.htm (last visited Oct. 15, 2010).
238. World Bank Data by Country: Canada, WORLD BANK, http://data.worldbank. org/country/canada (last visited Oct. 15, 2010);
239. see also World Economic Outlook Databases, INT'L MONETARY FUND, http://www.imf.org/external/ns/cs.aspx?id=28 (last visited Oct. 15, 2010).
240. World Bank Data by Country: Canada, WORLD BANK, http://data.worldbank. org/country/canada (last visited Oct. 15, 2010).
241. See infra Parts IV.B-C.
242. See Benjamin J. Richardson, The Ties that Bind: Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Governance, in INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND THE LAW: COMPARATIVE AND CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES 337,363-65 (Benjamin J. Richardson, Shin Imai & Kent McNeil eds., 2009).
243. See Stephen Crook & Jan Pakulski, Shades of Green: Public Opinion on Environmental Issues in Australia, 30 AUSTL. J. POL. SCI. 39 (1995);
244. JANE KELSEY, ECONOMIC FUNDAMENTALISM: THE NEW ZEALAND EXPERIMENT - A WORLD MODEL FOR STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT? (1996).
245. See BOYD, supra note 3, passim; THE INTEGRITY GAP: CANADA'S ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS (Eugene Lee & Anthony Perl eds., 2004).
246. ORG. FOR ECON. COOPERATION & DEV., OECD ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE REVIEWS: CANADA 2 (1995).
247. See Ransom A. Myers, Jeffrey A. Hutchings & Nicholas J. Barrowman, Why Do Fish Stocks Collapse? The Example of Cod in Atlantic Canada, 7 ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 91 (1997).
248. See DAVID BOYD, CANADA vs. THE OECD: AN ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON (2001), available at http://www.environmentalindicators.com.
249. See THOMAS I. GUNTON ET AL., THE MAPLE LEAF IN THE OECD: CANADA'S PROGRESS TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY 6 (2005), available at http://www.davidsuzuki. org/publications/reports/2005/the-maple-leaf-in-the-oecd-comparing-progress- toward-sustainability.
250. Mark S. Winfield, An Unimaginative People: Instrument Choice in Canadian Environmental Law and Policy, 71 SASK. L. REV. 79,80-81 (2008)
251. See COMM. ON THE STATUS OF ENDANGERED SPECIES IN CAN., SUMMARY OF COSEWIC ASSESSMENT RESULTS AS OF APRIL 2010 (2010), available at http://www.cosewic.gc. ca/rpts/Full-List-Species.htm;
252. AUSTRALIAN GOV'T, ASSESSMENT OF AUSTRAUA'S TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY 2008, at 80 (2009), available at http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/ publications/terrestrial-assessment/mdex.html;
253. ROD HITCHMOUGH, LEIGH BULL & PAM CROMARTY, NEW ZEALAND THREAT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM LISTS 2005, at 23 (2007).
254. See TIM FLANNERY, THE FUTURE EATERS: AN ECOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE AUSTRALASIAN LANDS AND PEOPLE 61-62, 237-41, 353, 356, 382, 387 (1994).
255. See Canada's Greenhouse-Gas Emissions Rose Sharply Between 1990 and 2005: Study, CBC NEWS (Apr. 22, 2008), http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/04/22/ tech-canada-greenhouse.html.
256. See Environment: GHG Emissions Per Capita, CONFERENCE BD. OF CANADA (Oct. 2008), http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/detaUs/environment/greenhouse-gas- emissions.aspx (last visited Sept. 4, 2010).
257. See id.
258. See Press Release, Climate Action Network Canada, Government of Canada Next to Bottom of the Class in Fighting Climate Change (Nov. 13, 2006), available at http://www.climateactionnetwork.ca/e/news/2006/nairobi-2006-11-13. html.
259. See Catherine Porter, Canada Dead Last on Green List, TORONTO STAR, July 1, 2009, http://www.thestar.com/News/Canada/article/659218.
260. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 248.
261. See, e.g., Stefan Speck, The Design of Carbon and Broad-Based Energy Taxes in European Countries, 10 VT. J. ENVTL. L. 31 (2008);
262. Simon Dresner et al., Social and Political Responses to Ecological Tax Reform in Europe: An Introduction to the Special Issue, 34 ENERGY POL'Y 895 (2006).
263. See, e.g., Noah Sachs, Planning the Funeral at the Birth: Extended Producer Responsibility in the European Union and the United States, 30 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 51 (2006).
264. James Salzman & J.B. Ruhl, Currencies and the Commodification of Environmental Law, 53 STAN. L. REV. 607 (2000);
265. Richard Schmalensee et al., An Interim Evaluation of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions Trading, 12 J. ECON. PERSP. 53 (1998).
266. On international practice, see ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTS AND INSTITUTIONS (Thomas H. Tietenberg, Kenneth Button & Peter Nijkamp eds., 1999);
267. NICHOLAS A. ASHFORD & CHARLES C. CALDART, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, POLICY, AND ECONOMICS: RECLAIMING THE ENVIRONMENTAL AGENDA (2008);
268. 5 CRITICAL ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL TAXATION: INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES (Nathalie Chalifour et al. eds., 2008). Regarding Canada's weak use of economic instruments,
269. see Wiktor Adamowicz, Reflections on Environmental Policy in Canada, 55 CANADIAN J. AGRIC. ECON. 1, 1 (2007).
270. See ORG. FOR ECON. COOPERATION & DEV., supra note 171, at 7.
271. See An Act to Amend the Income Tax Act, the Excise Act, the Excise Tax Act, the Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions Act, the Old Age Security Act and the Canada Shipping Act, S.C 1996, c. 21, s. 20;
272. Stepan Wood, Canada's "Forgotten Forests": Or, How Ottawa Is Failing Local Communities and the World in Peri-Urban Forest Protection, 14 J. ENVTL. L. & PRAC. 217, 243 (2004);
273. Toner, supra note 104, at 106.
274. See Canada's Domestic Action, GOV'T CANADA (Oct. 15, 2010), http:/www.climatechange.gc.ca/default.asp?lang-En&n=4FE85A4C-l.
275. See LIBERAL PARTY OF CAN., THE GREEN SHIFT: BUILDING A CANADIAN ECONOMY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY (2008) (part of the party's 2008 federal election platform);
276. GREEN PARTY OF CAN., LOOKING FORWARD: A FRESH PERSPECTIVE ON CANADA'S FUTURE (2008) (2008 federal election platform).
277. See A Plan for the Economy vs. Proposals for Financial Disaster, CONSERVATIVE PARTY OF CAN. (Oct. 7, 2008), http://www.conservative.ca/pohcy/plan (describing the party's 2008 federal election platform);
278. Les Whittington, Dion's Carbon Tax Plan Was a Vote Loser, Ignatieff Says, TORONTO STAR, Feb. 28, 2009, at A8 (describing new federal Liberal leader's rejection of predecessor's proposed carbon tax).
279. See Cass, supra note 4, at 474-75.
280. See Harper's Letter Dismisses Kyoto as 'Socialist Scheme', CBC NEWS (Jan. 30, 2007), http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2007/01/30/harper-kyoto.html;
281. Green Infrastructure Fund, INFRASTRUCTURE CAN. (May 27, 2009), http://www.buildingcanada-chantierscanada.gc.ca/media/news-nouvelles/2009/ gif-fiv-eng.html.
282. S.C. 2007, c. 30.
283. See Convention on Access to Information, Pubulic Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, June 25, 1998, 2161 U.N.T.S. 447.
284. The United States established a Toxics Release Inventory in 1988.
285. See Emergency Planning & Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, 42 U.S.C. § 11001-11050;
286. Toxics Release Inventory Program, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/tri (last visited Oct. 15, 2010).
287. See Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, June 25, 1998, 2161 U.N.T.S. 447;
288. Draft Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers to the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, opened for signature May 21,2003, available at http://www.unece.org/env/pp/e-mop.htm.
289. See S.C. 2000, c. 32, s. 8(2).
290. See Shaun Fluker, Ecological Integrity in Canada's National Parks: The False Promise of Law, 29 WINDSOR REV. LEGAL & SOC ISSUES 89 (2010).
291. See Canadian Parks and Wilderness Soc'y v. Canada (Minister of Canadian Heritage), [2002] 2 F.C D-8 (Trial Div.), aff'd, [2003] 4 F.C. 672.
292. Id. paras. 52-53.
293. See Kevin S. Golden, Senate Bill 1078: The Renewable Portfolio Standard - California Asserts Its Renewable Energy Leadership, 30 ECOLOGY L.Q. 693 (2003);
294. Rolf Wüstenhagen & Michael Bilharz, Green Energy Market Development in Germany: Effective Public Policy and Emerging Customer Demand, 34 ENERGY POL'Y 1681 (2006).
295. See Green Energy Act, S.O. 2009, c. 12.
296. See George Hoberg, Sleeping with an Elephant: The American Influence on Canadian Environmental Regulation, 11 J. PUB. POL'Y 107 (1991). One earlier example of such influence was environmental impact assessment law.
297. See Toner, supra note 104, at 93.
298. Gloria Galloway & Nathan Vanderklippe, Canada Ties New Emissions-Cuts Targets to U.S. Goals, GLOBE & MAIL, Feb. 1, 2010, at A6.
299. See Abbott, supra note 36, at 89-90.
300. See Regulatory Reinvention (XL) Pilot Projects, 60 Fed. Reg. 27, 282, 27, 287 (May 23, 1995).
301. See U.S. ENVTL. PROT, AGENCY, OFFICE OF POLICY, ECON. & INNOVATION, PERFORMANCE TRACK FINAL PROGRESS REPORT (2009).
302. See ENV'T PROT. AUTH. VICT., GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF ENVIRONMENT IMPROVEMENT PLANS 1 (2002).
303. See Ontario's Environmental Leaders: Benefits of the Program, ONT.: MINISTRY OF THE ENV'T, http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/general/oel/benefits.php (last modified June 23, 2009).
304. See Winfield, supra note 175, at 85;
305. see also NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN CANADA (Mohamed Charih & Arthur Daniels eds., 1997).
306. See Mark Winfield, Alternative Service Delivery in the Natural Resources Sector: An Examination of Ontario's Forestry Compliance Self-inspection System, 48 CAN. PUB. ADMIN. 552, 552 (2005).
307. Id. at 554.
308. Id.
309. George Hoberg, Environmental Policy: Alternative Styles, in GOVERNING CANADA: INSTITUTIONS AND PUBLIC POLICY 307, 314 (Michael Atkinson ed., 1993).
310. DAVID OSBORNE & TED GAEBLER, REINVENTING GOVERNMENT: How THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT IS TRANSFORMING THE PUBLIC SECTOR 25 (1993).
311. Mark S. Winfield, David Whorley & Shelley Beth Kaufman, Public Safety in Private Hands: A Study of Ontario's Technical Standards and Safety Authority, 45 CAN. PUB. ADMIN. 24, 34 (2002).
312. See Mark Winfield, Public Safety in Private Hands: Rethinking the TSSA Model, TORONTO STAR, Aug. 29, 2008, available at http://www.thestar.com/comment/ article/487433.
313. See id.
314. See id.
315. See Bill 68, Open for Business Act of 2010 (2d Sess., 39th Leg., Ontario, 59 Eliz. II), sched. 7;
316. odernizing Environmental Approvals, ONT. MINISTRY OF THE ENV'T, http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/business/mofa/index.php (last visited Oct. 6, 2010).
317. See BENJAMIN J. RICHARDSON, SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE INVESTMENT LAW: REGULATING THE UNSEEN POLLUTERS (2008).
318. See Benjamin J. Richardson, Pensions Law Reform and Environmental Policy: A New Role for Institutional Investors?, 3 J. INT'L FIN. MARKETS: L. & REG. 159, 162-66 (2002).
319. See U.N. ENVT PROGRAMME FINANCE INITIATIVE (UNEPFI) & UK SOCIAL INVESTMENT FORUM, RESPONSIBLE INVESTMENT IN FOCUS: HOW LEADING PUBLIC PENSION FUNDS ARE MEETING THE CHALLENGE 14-16, 46-48 (2007);
320. New Zealand Superannuation and Retirement Income Act 2001, No. 84, s. 58.
321. The scheme was revamped and extended in 2002 and 2005.
322. See Regeling groenprojecten buitenland [Regulation on Green Projects Abroad], STAATSCOURANT (Neth.), Jan. 2, 2002, at 31;
323. Regeling groenprojecten [Regulation on Green Projects], STAATSCOURANT (Neth.), July 11, 2005, at 131.
324. See SUSTAINABLE PROFIT: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS GENERATED BY THE GREEN FUNDS SCHEME 6-7 (2002), available at http://www.senternovem. nl/mmfiles/sustainable-profit-tcm24-196677.pdf.
325. See Bill C-394, An Act to Amend the Pension Benefits Standards Act of 1985 (Sept. 20, 2001). The bill was modeled on the UK precedent by its requirement that pension funds disclose whether or not they have an investment policy for addressing social and ethical issues, but (also as in the UK) the pension funds were not required to adopt a policy for SRI.
326. See Doug Watt, Ontario Regulator Backs Off on ESG Rules, SRI MONITOR (Jan. 14, 2010, 11:16 AM), http://srimonitor.blogspot.com/2010/01/ontario- regulator-backs-off-onesg.html.
327. NAT'L ROUND TABLE ON THE ENV'T & ECON., CAPITAL MARKETS AND SUSTAINABILITY: INVESTING IN A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: STATE OF THE DEBATE REPORT 3 (2007).
328. Canada Business Corporations Act, R.S.C 1985, s. 137(5), amended by S.C. 2001, c. 14, s. 59.
329. Public Accountability Statements (Banks, Insurance Companies, Trust and Loan Companies) Regulations, SOR/2002-133. The regulations were imposed in the context of a wave of mergers in the banking industry that raised concerns about an unhealthy concentration of power among a few large lenders.
330. See MURRAY COOKE, BANKING ON MERGERS: FINANCIAL POWER VERSUS THE PUBLIC INTEREST 36-37 (2005).
331. For comparison of SRI-related legal reforms in other jurisdictions,
332. see RICHARDSON, supra note 223, at 303-75.
333. See Paehlke, supra note 155 (discussing reasons for decline of Canadian environmental law and policy);
334. Winfield, supra note 175, at 79-80 (ditto).
335. See infra Part IV.C.
336. See Mark Winfield, Policy Instruments in Canadian Environmental Policy, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND POLITICS 46, 56 (Debora L. VanNijnatten and Robert Boardman eds., 2009).
337. See David Clark, Neoliberalism and Public Service Reform: Canada in Comparative Perspective, 35 CAN. J. POL. SCI. 771 (2002);
338. Anita Kranjc, Whither Ontario's Environment: NeoConservatism and the Decline of the Ministry of the Environment, 26 CAN PUB. POL. 111 (2000).
339. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 239-40.
340. Taking action to cut GHG emissions is one prominent example.
341. See Gordon Smith & David Victor, Beyond Kyoto, in HARD CHOICES: CUMATE CHANGE IN CANADA 215, 221 (Harold Coward & Andrew J. Weaver eds., 2004);
342. DAVID SUZUKI FOUNDATION, PROVINCIAL POWER PLAY: BREAKING AWAY FROM FEDERAL INACTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (2008).
343. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 92-93;
344. Shi-Ling Hsu & Robin Elliot, Regulating Greenhouse Gases in Canada: Constitutional and Policy Dimensions, 54 McGILL L.J. 463, 472-74 (2009).
345. See Constitution Act, 1867, 30 & 31 Vict., c. 3, §§ 92, 92A, 109 (U.K.), reprinted in R.S.C. 1985, app. II, no. 5 (Can.).
346. See id. § 91;
347. Steven Kennett, Federal Environmental Jurisdiction after Oldman, 31 McGILL L.J. 180, 197 (1992). "Federal undertakings" include enterprises, organizations, projects, and activities of the federal government itself or under federal jurisdiction.
348. PATRICK MONAHAN, CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 359 (3d ed. 2006).
349. See, e.g., British Columbia v. Canadian Forest Prods. Ltd., [2004] 2 S.C.R. 74, para. 7;
350. 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'Arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241, para. 1;
351. R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213, para. 85;
352. Ontario v. Canadian Pac. Ltd., [1995] 2 S.C.R. 1031, para. 55.
353. See, e.g.. Friends of the Oldman River Soc'y v. Canada (Minister of Transport), [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3;
354. R. v. Hydro-Québec, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213;
355. Imperial Oil Ltd. v. Quebec (Minister of the Environment), [2003] S.C.R. 624;
356. British Columbia v. Canadian Forest Prods. Ltd., [2004] 2 S.C.R. 74.
357. See 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] 2 S.C.R. 40.
358. See R. v. Nw. Falling Contractors Ltd., [1980] 2 S.C.R. 292.
359. R. v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd., [1988] 1 S.C.R. 401.
360. See Friends of the Oldman River Soc'y, [1992] 1 S.C.R. 3.
361. See Hydro-Québec, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 213.
362. Hsu & Elliot, supra note 240, at 491-93.
363. Constitution Act, 1867, 30 &
364. 31 Vict. c. 3, § 91(24) (U.K.).
365. Constitution Act, 1982, s. 35(1), being Schedule B to the Canada Act, 1982, c. 11 (U.K.).
366. See R. v Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075;
367. Delgamuukw v. British Columbia, [1997] 3 S.C.R. 1010.
368. S.C. 1999, c. 24.
369. See John Merritt & Terry Fenge, Nunavut Land Claims Settlement: Emerging Issues in Law and Public Administration, 15 QUEEN'S L.J. 255 (1990).
370. See Haida Nation v. British Columbia (Minister of Forests), [2004] 3 S.C.R. 511;
371. Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia, [2007] B.C.S.C 1700 (Can. B.C.).
372. AUSTRALIAN CONSTITUTION s 51.
373. See PAUL MULDOON, AN INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY IN CANADA 21 (2009).
374. See Joanna Harrington, Redressing the Democratic Deficit in Treaty-Making: (Re-) Establishing a Role for Parliament, 50 McGILL L.J. 465, 483 (2005);
375. Brandon, supra note 147, at 405.
376. CANADIAN COUNCIL OF MINISTERS OF THE ENVT, A CANADA-WIDE ACCORD ON ENVIRONMENTAL HARMONIZATION (1998), available at http://www.ccme.ca/assets/pdf/ accord -harmonization-e.pdf (last visited Oct. 13, 2010).
377. See Marcia Valiante, Legal Foundations of Canadian Environmental Policy: Underlining Our Values in a Shifting Landscape, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: CONTEXT AND CASES, supra note 39, at 3, 8.
378. Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1999, S.C. 1999, c. 33 s. 4(1)(b.2);
379. Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, S.C. 1992, c. 37 s. 54(1).
380. SEE MELODY HESSLNG, MICHAEL HOWLETT & TRACY SUMMERVILLE, CANADIAN NATURAL RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 205 (2005).
381. S.N.S. 2007, c. 7.
382. See HESSING, supra note 263, at 206.
383. See Environmental Assessment (Mandatory and Exempted Activities) Regulation, A. Reg. 111/93, sched. 2(d)-(e).
384. See Environmental Protection Act, S.N.L. 2002, c. E-14.2, pt. X.
385. See Paehlke, supra note 155, at 173;
386. Canadian Envtl. Law Ass'n v. Canada (Minister of Env't), [1999] 3 F.C 564 (Trial Div.), aff'd [2000] 4 F.C. D-6 (C.A.) (dismissing application for declaration that Canada-Wide Accord on Environmental Harmonization invalid).
387. See Nancy Olewiler, Environmental Policy in Canada: Harmonized at the Bottom?, in RACING TO THE BOTTOM? PROVINCIAL INTERDEPENDENCE IN THE CANADIAN FEDERATION 113,140 (Kathryn Harrison ed., 2006).
388. See, e.g., DENNIS R. O'CONNOR, REPORT OF THE WALKERTON INQUIRY, PART TWO: A STRATEGY FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER 71-78 (2002) (recommending a multi-barrier approach to drinking water safety).
389. Simon Lee & Stephen McBride, Introduction: Neo-Liberalism, State Power and Global Governance in the Twenty-First Century, in NEO-LIBERALISM, STATE POWER AND GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 1, 6 (Simon Lee & Stephen McBride eds., 2003).
390. See CLARKSON & WOOD, supra note 163, at 69.
391. Among the various strands of public choice theory,
392. see Richard Posner, Theories of Economic Regulation, 5 BELL J. ECON. 353 (1974);
393. Charles Rowley, Public Choice and the Economic Analysis of Law, in LAW AND ECONOMICS 155 (Nicholas Mercuro ed., 1989). The "Chicago" strand of public choice theory, associated with Posner, explains regulation in terms of supply and demand for political outcomes, while the "Virginia" school, associated with Rowley, offers an institutional analysis, focusing on the mechanics of democratic political markets.
394. See Richard Nelson, Roles of Government in a Mixed Economy, 6 J. POL. ANAL. & MGMT. 541, 542, 556 (1987) (noting that "government is subject to its own set of constraints and limitations").
395. See generally JAMES BUCHANAN & GORDON TULLOCK, CALCULUS OF CONSENT: LOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRACY (1962);
396. WILUAM NISKANEN, BUREAUCRACY: SERVANT OR MASTER? (1973).
397. See DANIEL FÄRBER & PHILIP FRICKEY, LAW AND PUBUC CHOICE 67-69 (1991).
398. See CUTTING GREEN TAPE: TOXIC POLLUTANTS, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION AND THE LAW (Richard Stroup, Roger Meiners & Kip Viscusi eds., 2000);
399. TERRY ANDERSON & DONALD LEAL, FREE MARKET ENVIRONMENTALISM (1991) (arguing that detailed environmental regulations administered by bureaucratic agencies tend to be inefficient, costly, and sometimes even ineffective at improving environmental conditions).
400. CLARKSON & WOOD, supra note 163, at 66-67.
401. Id. at 195.
402. See Karen Clark, The Top 10 Things Wrong with Environmental Protection under the Common Sense Revolution, 25 INTERVENOR 3 (2000).
403. See id.
404. See Municipal Water and Sewage Transfer Act, S.O. 1997, c. 6.
405. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 241.
406. David McLaren, A Briefing on the Harmonization Accord, 23 INTERVENOR (1998), available at http://www.cela.ca/article/canadian-environmental- protection-act-1999-first-cepareview/briefing-harmonization-accord.
407. See ENVTL. COMM'R OF ONT., DOING LESS WITH LESS: HOW SHORTFALLS IN BUDGET, STAFFING AND IN-HOUSE EXPERTISE ARE HAMPERING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MOE AND MNR (2007).
408. ENVTL. COMM'R OF ONT., GETTING TO K(NO)W: ANNUAL REPORT 2007-2008, at 74 (2007).
409. See Talks Underway to End Tainted Water Lawsuit, CBC NEWS (May 19, 2009), http://www.ctc.ca/canada/saskatchewan/story/2009/05/19/north-battleford-water- lawsuit123.html.
410. See HARRISON, supra note 119, at 98.
411. SEE STEPHEN CLARKSON, UNCLE SAM AND US: GLOBALIZATION, NEOCONSERVATISM AND THE CANADIAN STATE 340 (2002).
412. See Environment Canada Budget Cuts Threaten Wildlife Programs, CBC NEWS (Sept. 19. 2007), http://www.cbc.ca/news/yourview/2007/09/environment-canada- budget-cuts.html;
413. Tories Plan Cuts to Climate Change Programs, CBC NEWS (Apr. 5, 2006), http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2006/04/05/climate-change060405.html.
414. See Press Release, Infrastructure Canada, Canada Launches $1-billion Green Infrastructure Fund (May 29, 2009), available at http://www.buildingcanadachantierscanada.gc.ca/media/news-nouvelles/2009/ 20090529whitehorse-eng.html;
415. Elizabeth May, Stephen Harper Budget Worsens Ecological, Fiscal, Democratic Deficits, STRAIGHT.COM (May 5, 2010), available at http://www.straight.com/article-296471/vancouver/elizabeth-may-stephenharper- budget-worsens-ecological-fiscal-democratic-deficits.
416. See Robert Hahn & Robert Stavins, Economic Incentives for Environmental Protection: Integrating Theory and Practice, 82 AM. ECON. REV. 464, 464-65 (1992).
417. See Winfield, supra note 175, at 87-88.
418. ENVT CAN., NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAM ON CLIMATE CHANGE, passim (1995).
419. See Nic Rivers & Mark Jaccard, Canada's Efforts Towards Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction: A Case Study on the Limits of Voluntary Action and Subsidies, 23 INT'L J. GLOBAL ENERGY ISSUES 307 (2005);
420. MATTHEW BRAMLEY, THE CASE FOR KYOTO: THE FAILURE OF VOLUNTARY CORPORATE ACTION 1 (2002).
421. See Kathryn Harrison, Talking With the Donkey: Cooperative Approaches to Environmental Protection, 2 J. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 51 (1999);
422. Deborah L. VanNijnatten, The ARET Challenge, in VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES AND THE NEW POLITICS OF CORPORATE GREENING 91 (Robert B. Gibson ed., 1999).
423. See O'Connor, supra note 287, at 390 (discussing, for example, the problems of reliance on voluntary guidelines for reporting adverse drinking water test results).
424. See David M. Kotz, The Financial and Economic Crisis of 2008: A Systemic Crisis of Neoliberal Capitalism, 41 REV. RADICAL POL. ECON. 305 (2008).
425. S.O. 2009, c. 12.
426. See Ontario's Green Energy Act: Our Path to a Green Economy and a Cleaner Environment, MINISTRY OF ENERGY AND INFRASTRUCTURE, http://www.mei.gov.on.ca/ en/energy/gea (last visited Sept. 20, 2010).
427. See Frank Dietz & Jan van der Straaten, Economic Theories and the Necessary Integration of Ecological Insights, in THE POLITICS OF NATURE: EXPLORATIONS IN GREEN POLITICAL THEORY 118, 123 (Andrew Dobson & Paul Lucardie eds., 1993).
428. Winfield, supra note 175, at 88.
429. For background,
430. see Richard Harris, The Knowledge-based Economy: Intellectual Origins and New Economic Perspectives, 3 INT'L J. MGMT. REVS. 21 (2001).
431. See STATISTICS CAN., CANADA YEAR BOOK 2008, at 109 (2008).
432. See PEMBINA INSTITUTE, ECONOMIC DIVERSITY IN ALBERTA: HOW MUCH? 2 (2004), available at http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/02.Economic-Diversity.pdf (containing figures covering "resource based industries," which are defined to include petroleum, mining, forestry, and agriculture).
433. See BCSTATS, BUSINESS INDICATORS: BRITISH COLUMBIA'S ECONOMY: THEN AND NOW 3 (2008), available at http://www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/pubs/bcbi/bcbi0812.pdf (last visited Apr. 6, 2010).
434. See Exports of Goods on a Balance-of-Payments Basis, by Product, STATISTICS CAN., http://www40.statcan.ca/101/cst01/gblec04-eng.htm (last visited Sept. 29, 2010). Percentages are calculated by authors.
435. See GOV'T OF ALTA., HIGHLIGHTS OF THE ALBERTA ECONOMY 2009, at 9 (2009). In monetary terms, the amounts were C$47.8 billion and C$30.4 billion respectively, out of total exports in 2008 worth approximately C$118 billion. Id.
436. See Adam Wellstead, The (Post) Staples Economy and the (Post) Staples State in Historical Perspective, 1 CAN. POL. SCI. REV. 8, 14 (2007).
437. See Chris Bataille, Benjamin Dachis & Nic Rivers, Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Impact on Canada's Competitiveness, 280 C.D. HOWE INST. COMMENTARY 1, 3 (2009).
438. Id. For further discussion about Canadian climate policy and its economic costs, see Alastair Lucas, Mythology, Fantasy and Federalism: Canadian Climate Change Policy and Law, 20 PAC. MCGEORGE GLOBAL BUS. & DEV. L.J. 41 (2007).
439. See Debra Davidson & Norah MacKendrick, State-Capital Relations in Voluntary Environmental Improvement, 55 CURRENT SOCIOLOGY 674, 683 (2007).
440. See id. at 684.
441. See generally Steven Bernstein & Benjamin Cashore, The Influence of Globalization and Internationalization on Domestic Policy Change, in POWER IN THE GLOBAL ERA: GROUNDING GLOBALIZATION 110 (Theodore H. Conn, Stephen McBride & John Wiseman eds., 2000).
442. See George Hoberg, Governing the Environment: Comparing Canada and the United States, in DEGREES OF FREEDOM: CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES IN A CHANGING WORLD 341, 381 (Keith G. Banting, George Hoberg & Richard Simeon eds., 1997).
443. See PIERRE-MARC JOHNSON AND ANDRÉ BEAULIEU, THE ENVIRONMENT AND NAFTA: UNDERSTANDING AND IMPLEMENTING THE NEW CONTINENTAL LAW 111-12 (1996).
444. Nicola Jones, Obama May Be Tough on Canada's Tar Sands, NATURE NEWS (Feb. 13, 2009), http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090213/full/news.2009.103.html.
445. Terry Macalister, Oil Groups Mount Legal Challenge to Schwarzenegger's Tar Sands Ban, GUARDIAN (Feb. 14, 2010), http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/ 2010/feb/14/oil-sands-banlegal-challenge.
446. See Anna Hopper, A Crude Reality: Canada's Oil Sands and Pollution, 30 HARV. INT'L REV. 9, 9 (2008).
447. See Canada, U.S. Tighten Rules on Vehicle Emissions: Aim to Cut Greenhouse Gases 25% in Six Years, TORONTO STAR, April 2, 2010, at A8.
448. See DAVID C. MERCER, A QUESTION OF BALANCE: NATURAL RESOURCE CONFLICT IN AUSTRALIA 58-60, 206-69, 270-312 (3d ed. 2000).
449. See Harrison, supra note 136, at 133-34.
450. See BOYD, supra note 3, at 4.
451. See Campbell Clark, Saving the Environment Overtakes Stamping Out Corruption, GLOBE & MAIL, July 19,2007, at A13.
452. Canadians tend to be voice greater environmental concern than Americans, according to surveys. See, e.g., Canadians and Americans Call for More Action on the Environment, Angus Reid Public Opinion (July 19, 2010), http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/43139/canadians-and-americans-call-for-more- action-on-the-environment2.
453. See Paehlke, supra note 155, at 161.
454. Canadians are Critical of the Country's Environmental Performance, ENVTRONICS (Apr. 11, 2007, 4:40 PM), http://erg.environics.net/media-room/ default.asp?aID-632.
455. Winfield, supra note 175, at 79.
456. See Kathryn Harrison, The Road not Taken: Climate Change Policy in Canada and the United States, 7 GLOBAL ENVTL. POL. 92, 94 (2007).
457. In 2008, a sitting Member of Parliament, Blair Wilson, joined the federal Green Party but was defeated in the 2008 federal election. See Green Party to Announce its First Member of Parliament, CBC NEWS (Aug. 30, 2008, 7:57 PM), http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/ 08/30/green-party.html. For a summary of the 2008 election results, see http://www.sfu.ca/ -aheard/elections/results. html.
458. On this phenomenon generally, see CLAUS OFFE, CONTRADICTIONS OF THE WELFARE STATE 185-86 (1984).
459. See Chris Boutet, Key Election Issues: Environment and the "Green Shift", NATIONAL POST (Sept. 7, 2008, 8:30 AM), http://network. nationalpost.com/NP/blogs/posted/ archive/2008/09/07/key-election-issues- environment-and-the-green-shift.aspx.
460. See Whittington, supra note 192.
461. See Louis Massicotte, Canada: Sticking to First-Past-the-Post, for the Time Being, in THE POLITICS OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS 99, 103 (Michael Gallagher & Paul Mitchell eds., 2005).
462. See Kathryn Harrison & Lisa M. Sundstrom, The Comparative Politics of Climate Change, 7 GLOBAL ENVTL. POL. 1, 9 (2007).
463. See 40th General Election (2008), ELECTIONS CANADA (Apr. 1, 2010), http://enr.elections.ca/National-e.aspx.
464. See Stephanie Levitz, B.C. Voters Reject New Electoral System in Second Referendum, CANADIAN PRESS (May 13, 2009);
465. Colin Perkel, Electoral Reform Down But Not Out After Ont. Referendum Failure: Experts, CANADIAN PRESS (Oct. 11, 2007);
466. Colin Perkel, Critics Assail Elections Ontario, McGuinty for Lack of Referendum Awareness, CANADIAN PRESS (Oct. 3, 2007).
467. See General Election 2008 - Official Results, ELECTIONS NEW ZEALAND (Apr. 1, 2010), http://www.elections.org.nz/news/2008-election-official-results.html.
468. See Final Result of the Election to the German Bundestag 2009, FED'L RETURNING OFFICER (Apr. 1, 2010), http://www.bundeswahlleiter.de/en/ bundestagswahlen/BTW-BUND09/ergebnisse/bundesergebnisse/index.html.
469. These include Germany's Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz EEG [Act Revising the Legislation on Renewable Energy Sources in the Electricity Sector and Amending Related Provisions], 2008, available at http://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/ files/pdfs/allgemein/ application/pdf/eeg-2009-en.pdf, and New Zealand's Climate Change Response Act, 2002, no. 40, available at http://www.legislation.govt.nz/ act/public/2002/0040/latest/DLM158584.html.
470. See Electoral Systems-Preferential Voting Systems, ELECTORAL COUNCIL OF AUSTL. (July 25, 2010), http://www.eca.gov.au/systems/single/by-category/ preferential.htm.
471. Unusually, however, in the 2010 federal election the Greens gained a pivotal seat in the House of Representatives, in Australia's first "hung" parliament since 1940. See Alison Rourke, Australian PM Julia Gillard Signs Pact with Greens, GUARDIAN (September 1, 2010), http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/01/julia-gillard-australia-greens-deal.
472. See Campbell Sharman, Anthony M. Sayers & Narelle Miragliotta, Trading Party Preferences: The Australian Experience of Preferential Voting, 21 ELECTORAL STUDIES 543, 549 (2002).
473. See Neil Hawke, Canadian Federalism and Environmental Protection, 14 J. ENVT'L. L. 185, 193-95 (2002).
474. See MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT, supra note 11, at 13-15.
475. See, e.g., STERN, supra note 60, at 122-42.
476. Resource Management Act, 1991, No. 69, available at http://www. legislation.govt.nz/ act/public/1991/0069/latest/DLM230265.html.
477. Swedish Environmental Code, 1999, available at http://www.sweden.gov.se/ sb/d/ 2023/a/22847.
478. S.C. 2008, c. 33.
479. See ENVT CAN., SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES: EVOLUTION OF THE FEDERAL APPROACH (2001).
480. See S.C. 2008, c. 33, s. 9.
481. S.M. 1997, c. 61; see also John Krowina, Manitoba's Sustainable Development Act, 25 MANITOBA L.J. 385 (1998).
482. S.M. 1997, c. 61, s. 2.
483. See S.M. 1997, c.61, sched. A-B.
484. S.N.S. 2007, c. 7, s. 4(2); see John Brazner, Legislating Sustainability: Nova Scotia's New Law Marries Environmental Sustainability and Economic Prosperity, 34 ALTERNATIVES J. 16 (2008).
485. S.O. 1994, c. 25.
486. GOV'T OF QUE., GOVERNMENT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 2008-2013 (2007).
487. R.S.Q. 2006, c. D-8.
488. B.C. WATER AND WASTE ASSOC., WATER SUSTAINABILITY ACTION PLAN (2004).
489. S.M. 1998, c. S270, s. 12(2).
490. These include the Voisey's Bay (1997), Red Hill (1999), Kemess North (2007), White's Point (2007) and MacKenzie Gas (2010) review panels. See Robert B. Gibson, Favouring the Higher Test: Contribution to Sustainability as the Central Criterion for Reviews and Decisions under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 10 J. ENVT'L. L. & PRAC 39 (2000);
491. Alberto Fonseca & Robert Gibson, Application Denied, 34 ALTERNATIVES J. 10 (2008);
492. JOINT REVIEW PANEL FOR THE MACKENZIE GAS PROJECT, FOUNDATION FOR A SUSTAINABLE NORTHERN FUTURE (2010).
493. See Fonseca & Gibson, supra note 362, at 12.
494. S.C. 2007, c. 30.
495. Id. s. 7(1).
496. GOV'T OF CAN., A CLIMATE CHANGE PLAN FOR THE PURPOSES OF THE KYOTO PROTOCOL IMPLEMENTATION ACT (2008), available at http://www.ec.gc.ca/doc/ed-es/ p-124/CCPlan-2008-eng.pdf
497. RESPONSE OF THE NATIONAL ROUND TABLE ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ECONOMY TO ITS OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE KYOTO PROTOCOL IMPLEMENTATION ACT § 7.0 (2009), available at http://www.nrtee-trnee.com/eng/publications/KPIA-2009/ Transmittal-Letter-KPIA-NRTEE-Response-2009-eng.php.
498. See Friends of the Earth v. Canada (Minister of the Environment) (2008), [2009] 3 F.C.R. 201 affd, [2009] F.C.A. 297 (Can. C.A.).
499. Sup. Ct. Canada, No. 33469 (Mar. 25, 2010).
500. See, e.g., Connecticut v. Am. Elec. Power Co., 582 F.3d 309 (2d Cir. 2009);
501. Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, 585 F.3d 855 (5th Cir. 2009).
502. See DAVID SUZUKI FOUNDATION, supra note 239, at 1-3.
503. Quebec to Collect Nation's First Carbon Tax, CBC NEWS (June 7, 2007), http://www.cbc.ca/canada/montreal/story/2007/06/07/carbon-tax.html.
504. See, e.g., Greenhouse Gas Reduction Targets Act, S.B.C 2007, c. 42;
505. Greenhouse Gas Reduction (Cap and Trade) Act, S.B.C. 2008, c. 32.
506. See, e.g., Environmental Protection Amendment Act (Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading) of 2009, S.O. 2009, c. 27;
507. Act to Amend Environmental Quality Act and Other Legislative Provisions in Relation to Climate Change, S.Q. 2009, c. 33.
508. 375. S.M. 2008, c. 17, s. 3(1).
509. Canada is required to reduce her average annual greenhouse gas emissions during the period 2008-12 to 6 percent below their level in 1990. See Kyoto Protocol, UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE SECRETARIAT, available at https://unfccc.int/kyoto -protocol/items/3145.php.
510. Backgrounder: Harper Government's January 2010 Greenhouse Gas Target, GREENPEACE (Feb. 1, 2010), http://www.greenpeace.org/canada/en/recent/ottawa- wrong -climate-change/backgrounder-harper-2010-gas-target.
511. S.O. 2009, c. 12.
512. For example, the Great Lakes Charter of 1985 and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement of 2005, signed by the governors of the eight states bordering the Great Lakes and the premiers of Ontario and Québec. See COUNCIL OF GREAT LAKES GOVERNORS, http://www.cglg.org (last visited Jan. 30, 2010).
513. For the text of the Great Lakes Charter, see http://www.cglg.org/ projects/water/docs/GreatLakesCharter.pdf. For the text of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement,
514. see http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/stdprodconsume/groups/lr/@mnr/@water/ documents/document/ 200040.pdf.
515. See, e.g., Provincial and State Partner Contacts, W. CLIMATE INITIATIVE http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/wci-partners (last visited Oct. 2, 2010);
516. Memorandum between the Province of Ontario and the State of California for Collaboration on Climate Change and Energy Efficiency (May 30, 2007), available at http://gov.ca.gov/pdf/ press/53007-Ontario-MOU.pdf.
517. S.A. 2003, c. C-16.7.
518. See DAVID SUZUKI FOUNDATION, ALL OVER THE MAP: A COMPARISON OF PROVINCIAL CUMATE CHANGE PLANS 12 (2005).
519. See generally JOHN SEWELL, THE SHAPE OF THE CITY: TORONTO STRUGGLES WITH MODERN PLANNING (1993).
520. See Don Alexander & Ray Tomalty, Smart Growth and Sustainable Development: Challenges, Solutions and Policy Directions, 7 LOCAL ENV'T 397 (2002);
521. BOHDAN ONYSCHUK, MICHAEL KOVECEVIC & PETER NIKOLAKATKOS, SMART GROWTH IN NORTH AMERICA: NEW WAYS TO CREATE LIVABLE COMMUNITIES (2001).
522. See 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] S.C.R. 241.
523. See Pesticide Timeline, CBC NEWS (May 21, 2004), http://www.cbc.ca/news/ background/pesticides/timeline.html;
524. see, e.g., TORONTO, CAN., BY-LAW NO. 456-2003, available at http://www.toronto.ca/health/hphe/pdf/pesticide-law0456.pdf;
525. HALIFAX, CAN., BY-LAW NO. P-800, available at http://www.halifax.ca/ legislation/bylaws/hnn/blp-800.pdf.
526. See CITY OF VANCOUVER, VANCOUVER'S CLIMATE LEADERSHIP 4 (2009).
527. See CITY OF TORONTO, AHEAD OF THE STORM: PREPARING TORONTO FOR CLIMATE CHANGE (2008).
528. S.O. 2005, c. 1.
529. S.O. 2005, c. 13.
530. CANADIAN INST, FOR ENVTL. LAW & POL'Y, ONTARIO'S GREENBELT IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 18 (2008), available at http://www.cielap.org/pdf/ Greenbelt InternationalContext.pdf (discussing recent enlargement of Portland's urban development boundary at the expense of the greenbelt).
531. See James Taylor, Cecelia Paine & John FitzGibbon, From Greenbelt to Greenways: Four Canadian Case Studies, 33 LANDSCAPE & URBAN PLAN. 47 (1995).
532. See Section 35(1), the Act being Schedule B of the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11.
533. See Graham White, Aboriginal People and Environmental Regulation, in CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND POUTICS: PROSPECTS FOR LEADERSHIP AND INNOVATION, supra note 3, at 87;
534. Annie Booth & Norman Skelton, First Nations Access and Rights to Resources, in RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN CANADA: ADDRESSING CONFLICT AND UNCERTAINTY 80 (Bruce Mitchell ed., 2004).
535. See Mikisew Cree First Nation v. Canada (Minister of Canadian Heritage), [2005] S.C.R. 388.
536. Comprehensive Claims Policy, INDIAN & N. AFFAIRS CAN., http://www.aincinac.gc.ca/ai/scr/nt/edu/bzz/nls/ccp/index-eng.asp.
537. See Jennifer Dalton, Aboriginal Title and Self-Government in Canada: What is the True Scope of Comprehensive Land Claims Agreements?, 22 WINDSOR REV. LEGAL & SOCIAL ISSUES 29 (2006).
538. An Act to Amend and Consolidate the Laws Respecting Indians. S.C. 1876, c. 18.
539. Id. ss. 18(1), 57, 58, 74(1) (lacking modern land use planning standards, and giving the responsible Canadian government Minister significant discretionary authority over land use management in Indian reserves).
540. FIRST NATIONS LAND ADVISORY BD., FRAMEWORK AGREEMENT ON FIRST NATIONS LAND MANAGEMENT: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (2003), available at http://www.fafnlm. com/ documents/FAQ%20English.pdf.
541. See First Nations Land Management Act, S.C. 1999, c. 24.
542. See, e.g., Richardson, supra note 168, at 340-43, 349 (noting, however, that some Indigenous peoples have been implicated in environmentally unsustainable practices, at 344-48).
543. See generally ABORIGINAL AND TREATY RIGHTS IN CANADA: ESSAYS ON LAW, EQUALITY AND RESPECT FOR DIFFERENCE (Michael Asch ed., 1997).
544. See, e.g., Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia, [2007] B.C.S.C 1700 (Can. B.C.) (where the Tsilhqot'in people sought declarations of their aboriginal land title to the contested area, and declarations of aboriginal rights to hunt and trap and to trade in animal pelts).
545. See FREE GRASSY NARROWS (Feb. 13,2010), http://www.freegrassy.org.
546. See General Assembly Adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UN DEP'TOFPUB. INFO. (Sept. 13, 2007), http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ ga10612.doc.htm;
547. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Sept. 13, 2007). The Canadian Government signed the Declaration with certain qualifications and on the understanding that it is legally not binding: John Ibbitson, Ottawa Endorses UN Native-Rights Declaration, GLOBE & MAIL, Nov. 13, 2010, at A13.
548. See Experts Hail Australia's Backing of UN Declaration of Indigenous Peoples' Rights, UN NEWS CENTRE (April 3, 2009), http://www.un.org/apps/news/ story.asp?NewsID=30382.
549. See WORLD WILDLIFE FUND, LIVING PLANET REPORT 2008, at 14 (2009).
550. Winfield, supra note 175.
551. For a recent overview, see THOMAS GUNTON & K.S. CALBICK, THE MAPLE LEAF IN THE OECD: CANADA'S ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE 23 (2010).
552. Many scientists and economists have advocated more fundamental changes to economic systems and institutions as the best way to achieve sustainability. See, e.g., DALY, supra note 65;
553. ROBERT COSTANZA, INSTITUTIONS, ECOSYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY (2001).