Navigating transpacific passages: Steamship companies, state regulators, and transshipment of Japanese in the early-twentieth-century pacific Northwest

Journal of American Ethnic History

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 7-34

  Takai, Yukari ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79953658771     PISSN: 02785927     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5406/jamerethnhist.30.3.0007     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. The precise titles of immigration offices and officials changed over time from their inception in the late nineteenth century. In 1911 the Canadian federal government transferred the responsibility for the Chinese immigration act from the Department of Trade and Com- merce to the Immigration Branch of the Department of Interior. I use the term Canadian immigration officials to refer to the personnel who dealt with immigration issues from the 1880s to the 1920s in the essay. In the U.S., immigration officials worked under the Treasury Department, then the Department of Commerce and Labor, and later the Department of Labor. Today these officials work in the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. I use the term Bureau of Immigration to refer to them. Patricia Roy, White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858-1914 (Vancouver, BC, 1989), 235;
2. Erika Lee, At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003), 265.
3. Report of Consulate of Japan, Vancouver Consul Morikawa Kishirô to Minister for Foreign Affairs of Japan, Viscount Hayashi Kaoru, July 28, 1907, in Nihon Gaikô Bunsho Archival Documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (ADMFAJ), 3.8.2.20, Eiryô Kanada ni okeru Honpôjin Imin Seigen oyobi Haiseki no Ikken, vol. 5 (Tokyo: Diplomatic Record Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs);
4. Canada, Royal Commission, Report of W. L. Mackenzie King, C.M.G. Commissioner Appointed to Enquire into the Methods by Which Oriental Labourers Have Been Induced to Come to Canada (Ottawa, 1907), 44-46 (hereafter referred to as Report of W. L. Mackenzie King);
5. C. A. Turner, Inspector, Office of Marcus Braun, U.S. Immigration Inspector, New York, Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Washington, DC, to John H. Sargent, Inspector in Charge, Seattle, Washington, Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Washington, DC, September 14, 1907, United States National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC (hereafter referred to as NARA), RG 85, Entry 9, File 51630, Folder 44a;
6. "Canadian Agreement," December 9, 1907, NARA, RG 85, Entry 9, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102. All records drawn from the NARA, in Washington, DC, in this essay belong to RG 85, Entry 9, unless otherwise stated. Kumeric was owned by a British company Andrew Weir & Co./Bank Line. Edmund Warde, ed., The House of Dodwell: A Century of Achievement, 1858-1958 (London, 1958), 5;
7. Walter Feldwick, Present Day Impressions of the Far East and Prominent and Progressive Chinese at Home and Abroad (London, 1917), 562;
8. Carol Matheson Connell, A Business in Risk: Jardine Matheson and the Hong Kong Trading Industry (Westport, CT, 2004), 5, 50.
9. The Japanese officials used the term tenko imin, translated literally as "turning migrants," to refer to the Japanese migrants who sought entry into the continental U.S. from Hawai'i after various lengths of stay and working experience in the islands. In this essay, the concept of transmigrant is used in a broader sense to include all those who traveled to their destinations in the U.S. with passages in a locality or localities outside the continental United States such as Hawai'i, Mexico, and Canada. See Report of Consulate of Japan, Honolulu Consul Saito Kan to Minister for Foreign Affairs of Japan Viscount Hayashi Kaoru, 1906, in Gaimushô, "Hawai ni okeru Honpô Imin Raiou Meisaisho Shintatsu no Ken," in Gaimushô Nihon Gaikô Bunsho (Tokyo, 1906), 728
10. cited in Sasaki Toshiji, Nihonjin Kanada Iminshi (Tokyo, 1999), chap. 4, esp. 151-52.
11. F. P. Sargent, Commissioner-General, Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Washington, DC, to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, August 30, 1907, NARA, File 51868, Folder 17b.
12. Sasaki, Nihonjin Kanada Iminshi, 153-69;
13. Report of W. L. Mackenzie King, 41.
14. Vancouver Daily Province, July 24, July 25, 1907;
15. Gaimushô, "Hawai ni okeru Honpô," 740- 41.
16. John H. Clark, Commissioner, Department of Commerce and Labor, U.S. Immigration Service, to T. Nosse, Imperial Consulate General of Japan, Ottawa, December 9, 11, 13, 1907, "Canadian Agreement," NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, no. 6102.
17. The landing of Japanese on board the Kumeric in late July 1907 was not an isolated incident. On the same day, 390 more arrived on the Aki Maru of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha (N.Y.K.) Line. Three months later, the SS Keeman of the Ocean S.S. Line was reported to have arrived in Victoria with 167 Japanese on board. Among them, 124 had passports issued by the Japanese government in accordance with U.S. regulations bound to the United States, and of them, 112 applied for permission to enter the United States. Three days later, the SS Kaga Maru of the N.Y.K. landed at Victoria and delivered a total of 133 Japanese, 71 of whom held passports to the United States. Some 42 such passengers from this steamer underwent examination by U.S. immigration officers in Victoria within five days of their landing. Further, the Japanese Consulate in Honolulu reported the departure of 667 Japanese immigrants from Hawai'i for Vancouver from February 1907, when President Roosevelt banned immigration of Japanese via Hawai'i to the continental U.S., through May 1907. "Canadian Agreement," November 18, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102;
18. "Canadian Agreement," June 11, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a;
19. Yukari Takai, "Circumnavigating Controls: Transborder Migration of Asian-Origin Migrants during the Period of Exclusion," in Migrants and Migration in Modern North America: Cross-Border Lives, Labor Markets, and Politics in Canada, the Caribbean, Mexico, and the United States, ed. Dirk Hoerder and Nora Faires ( Durham, NC, forthcoming).
20. For Asians, see Mae. M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ, 2004), chap. 4;
21. Erika Lee, "The 'Yellow Peril' and Asian Exclusion in the Americas," Pacific Historical Review 76, no. 4 (2007): 537-62;
22. Kornel Suk Chang, "Transpacific Borderlands and Boundaries: Race, Migration, and State Formation in the North American Pacific Rim, 1882-1917" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2007);
23. and Yukari Takai, "'These Japanese Continuously Violated the Alien-Contract Labour Laws': The Gendered Paths of Labourers, Farmers, and Housewives from Japan Traversing the Canada-U.S. Border in the Early Twentieth Century," Histoire sociale/Social History 80 (November 2007): 297-322.
24. Among the many studies on Mexicans, one of the earliest works is George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993), chap. 2.
25. For Asians, see Ngai, Impossible Subjects, chap. 4.
26. On cross-border migration of Europeans and Canadians, see Randy William Widdis, With Scarcely a Ripple: Anglo-Canadian Migration into the United States and Western Canada, 1880-1920 (Montreal, 1998);
27. Bruno Ramirez, with Yves Otis, Crossing the 49th Parallel: Migration from Canada to the United States, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, NY, 2001);
28. John J. Bukowczyk et al., Permeable Border: The Great Lakes Basin as Transnational Region, 1650-1990 (Pittsburgh, PA, and Calgary, 2005);
29. and Yukari Takai, Gendered Passages: French-Canadian Migration to Lowell, Massachusetts, 1900-1920 (New York, 2008).
30. Furthermore, white "maidens" from Europe who lived and worked in the border regions constituted another target group of U.S. immigration control. See Deirdre M. Moloney, "Women, Sexual Morality, and Economic Dependency in Early U.S. Deportation Policy," Journal of Women's History 18, no. 2 (2006): 95-122.
31. Among the early exceptions to this tendency to obliterate the roles of "middlemen" of migration are Alan Takeo Moriyama, Imingaisha: Japanese Emigration Companies and Hawaii, 1894-1908 (Honolulu, 1985);
32. and Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988).
33. For more recent studies, see Kornel Chang, "Enforcing Transnational White Solidarity: Asian Migration and the Formation of the U.S.-Canadian Boundary," American Quarterly 60, no. 3 (2008): 671-96;
34. and Yukari Takai, "Asian Migrants, Exclusionary Laws, and Transborder Migration in North America, 1880-1940," Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 23 (October 2009): 35-42.
35. Studies on smugglers also recognize the significance of the roles non-nation, nonmigrant parties played in contesting the exclusionary regulations imposed by nation-states. However, the stories of smuggling also can be recast in the narrative centering on the nation-state versus migrants paradigm. One example of this is the study of Patrick Ettinger in which he illustrates the strategies and actions of smugglers in keeping the southern border permeable from 1895 to 1910 ("Imaginary Lines: Border Enforcement and the Origins of Undocumented Immigration, 1882-1930" [PhD diss., Indiana University, 2000]).
36. Yet he titles the chapter in which he discusses the role of smugglers "Immigrant Ingenuity," without any mention of the smugglers. One may ask whether this labeling of the chapter reflects an assumption that immigrants and smugglers shared common interests in challenging the border restriction that allowed conflation of the two groups in the fight against the nation-state's control of the border. Among the pioneer studies on intermediaries of Japanese labor migration are Alan Moriyama, Imingaisha; Yuji Ichioka, "Japanese Immigrant Labor Contractors and the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern Railroad Companies, 1898-1907," Labor History 21, no. 3 (1980): 325-50; and Ichioka, Issei.
37. Andrea A. Geiger, "Invoking the Transit Privilege: Japanese Immigrant Challenges to the Power of North American Borders to Exclude" (paper presented at the annual conference of the Organization of American Historians, Seattle, WA, March 2009).
38. Eiichiro Azuma, "A Transborder Japanese Community in U.S.-Mexican California: A Preliminary Study of Borderland Nikkei Experience," in The World of Transnational Asian Americans, ed. Daizaburo Yui (Tokyo, 2006): 101-18, esp.108.
39. Dorothee Schneider used the term "facilitators of migration" to describe this wide range of middlemen, agents, and service providers of migration in the panel titled "Transit Migration and Crossing Borders in (and between) Europe and North America, 1880-1930," at the annual conference of the Social Science History Association, Long Beach, CA, November 2009. Among recent studies, see Michiko Midge Ayukawa, Hiroshima Immigrants in Canada, 1891-1941 (Vancouver, BC, 2008), chap. 2;
40. and Takai, "Asian Migrants," 35-42, esp. 36-37, 39.
41. U.S. Treasury Department, Office of Commissioner- General of Immigration, Annual Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1900 (Washington, DC, 1900), 39;
42. Takai, "'These Japanese Continuously Violated,'" 307-308
43. A U.S. source recorded that as many as two-thirds of the Japanese passengers who arrived at Victoria on the steamers of the Ocean Steamship Company almost immediately appeared before U.S. Immigration, indicating their desire to proceed to the United States. John H. Clark, Commissioner, Department of Commerce and Labor, Immigration Service, Montreal, Canada, to Honorable F. P. Sargent, Commissioner-General of Immigration, June 26, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a.
44. "Autobiography of Hirakawa Kihachi" (in Japanese), acc. no. 2418-2, T0551C, Box 1 of 1, Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
45. Iino Masako, Nikkei Kanadajin no Rekishi (A history of Japanese Canadians) (Tokyo, 1997);
46. W. Peter Ward, White Canada Forever: Popular Attitudes and Public Policy toward Orientals in British Columbia, 2d ed. (Montreal, 1990), 75-76;
47. Howard H. Sugimoto, "Vancouver Riots of 1907," in East Across the Pacific: Historical and Sociological Studies of Japanese Immigration and Assimilation, ed. Hilary Conroy and T. Scot Miyakawa (Santa Barbara, CA, 1972), 93;
48. Hugh Johnston, The Voyage of the Komagata Maru: The Sikh Challenge to Canada's Colour Bar (Vancouver, BC, 1989), 4-5, 8, 9, 58-59.
49. Bureau of Trade, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Fujii Saburô to the Superintendent- General of the Metropolitan Police Department, Yamada Tameyoshi, Governors of Shiga, Kanagawa, Wakayama, Nara, Osaka, Hyogo, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Fukuoka, and Kumamoto Prefectures, February 18, 1897, in Eiryô Kanada ni okeru Honpôjin Imin Seigen oyobi Haiseki no Ikken, vol. 1, Diplomatic Record Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Tokyo).
50. Yuji Ichioka, Issei, 71; Patricia Roy, A White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858-1914 (Vancouver, BC, 1989), 207, 209-13;
51. Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York, 2005), 30-31;
52. Yamada Michio, Fune ni miru nihonjin iminshi: Kasado maru kara kuruzu kyakusen he (History of Japanese Immigration Viewed through the Ships: From Kasado-Maru to Cruise Ships) (Tokyo, 1998).
53. U.S. Industrial Commission, Reports of the Industrial Commission on Immigration: Including Testimony with Review and Digest, The Commission's Reports, vol. 15, general note (1901; repr. New York, 1970), 755.
54. Immigration Agent, Immigration Branch, Department of the Interior, Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, to Commissioner, John H. Clark, Department of Commerce and Labor, U.S. Immigration Service, Office of the Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, February 18, 1910, NARA, File 51686, Folder 17av; Inspector in Charge, Department of the Interior, Canada, Vancouver, to John H. Clark, U.S. Commissioner of Immigration, Montreal, Canada, February 21, 1910, NARA, File 51931-21A, No. 835;
55. John H. Clark to H. P. Sargent, Commissioner-General of Immigration, Washington, DC, November 17, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102;
56. S. J. Burford, Assistant Inspector in Charge, Office of Inspector in Charge, Port Victoria, British Columbia, Department of Commerce and Labor, Immigration Services, to P. L. Prentis, Inspector in Charge, Vancouver, British Columbia, January 23, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b;
57. John H. Clark, Commissioner, Department of Commerce and Labor, U.S. Immigration Service, to Honorable T. Nosse, Imperial Consulate General of Japan, Ottawa, Ontario, December 13, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102;
58. John H. Clark, Department of Commerce and Labor, U.S. Immigration Service, Office of Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, to Honorable F. P. Sargent, Commissioner-General of Immigration, Washington, DC, and Mr. John L. Clark, U.S. Commissioner of Immigration, 233 St. Antoine Street, Montreal, Canada, August 8, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6456.
59. "Kawaguchi, Sanjiro," Collection number 2010, Box 519, Tape #1, Japanese American Research Project Collection, University of California at Los Angeles.
60. U.S. Industrial Commission, Reports of the Industrial Commission, lxii, lxiii, 681-83.
61. Oscar S. Straus, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington DC, to Frank Waterhouse and Company, Seattle, WA, December 30, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder14b;
62. Oscar S. Straus, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington DC, to Frank Waterhouse and Company, Seattle Washington, NARA, File 51931, 14b. See also Ramirez, with Otis, Crossing the 49th Parallel, 42-43;
63. Lee, At America's Gates, 176-78;
64. Ettinger "Imaginary Lines,"124;.
65. Marian L. Smith, "The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) at the U.S.-Canadian Border, 1893-1993: An Overview of Issues and Topics," Michigan Historical Review 26, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 127-47.
66. Ettinger, "Imagined Lines," 124;
67. Smith, "The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS),"128.
68. Oscar S. Straus, Department of Commerce and Labor, Office of the Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, to L. O. Murray, Acting Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Washington, DC, July 2, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, no. 6102; File 51564, Folder 6;
69. John H. Clark to Dodwell & Co., June 26, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, no. 6102.
70. John H. Clark, Commissioner of Immigration, Montreal Canada, July 9, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102;
71. "From John H. Clark, Commissioner, Department of Commerce and Labor, Immigration Service, Montreal, Canada, to Dodwell & Company, Agents, Ocean Steamship Company, Seattle, Washington, July 12 and June 26, 1907, NARA, ibid.;
72. A. Stewart, Dodwell & Company, Ltd., Tacoma, Washington, to John L. Clark, U.S. Commissioner of Immigration, 233 St. Antoine Street, Montreal, Canada, July 31, 1907, NARA, ibid.
73. Oscar S. Straus, Department of Commerce and Labor, Office of the Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, to L. O. Murray, Acting Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Washington, DC, July 2, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, no. 6102.
74. Oscar S. Straus, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington DC, to Frank Waterhouse and Company, Seattle, WA, December 30, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b.
75. Vancouver Daily, June 12, 1908, December 31, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b.
76. John H. Clark, December 9, 18, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b.
77. John H. Clark, Department of Commerce and Labor, U.S. Immigration Service, Office of the Commissioner, Montreal, Canada, to F. P. Sargent, Commissioner-General of Immigration, Washington DC, December 18, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b, No. 6102.
78. John H. Clark to H. P. Sargent, Commissioner-General of Immigration, Washington DC, December 9, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a.
79. Roy, White Man's Province, 212-13;
80. Henry W. Bartlett, Department of Commerce and Labor, Immigration Service, Office of Inspector in Charge, Port of Blaine, Washington, to Inspector in Charge, Eagle Pass and El Paso, TX, March 12, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 5, Bureau Circular 2, No. 877;
81. F. V. Blesse, President, First National Bank, Eagle Pass, TX, to W. J. Maher, Inspector in Charge, U.S. Immigration Service, Eagle Pass, TX, April 10, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 5, Bureau Circular 2.
82. From F. H. Larned, Acting Commissioner-General, Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Washington, DC, to Frank W. Berkshire, Supervising Inspector, Supervising Inspector, Immigration Service, San Antonio, June 13, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 6, Circular 2;
83. From Luther C. Steward, Acting Supervising Inspector, Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Washington, DC to Honorable Commissioner-General of Immigration, Washington, DC, Supervising Inspector, Immigration Service, San Antonio, Texas, Commissioner of Immigration, Montreal, Canada, date missing, NARA, File 51931, Folder 5, Circular 2, No. 1191/5;
84. From Superintendent of Immigration, Ottawa, to John H. Clark, Esq., U.S. Immigration Commissioner, 233, St. Antoine Street, Montreal, P.Q., April 13, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 5, Circular 2, No. 9309 Imm.;
85. From F.W. Berkshire to Commissioner of Immigration, Montreal, Canada, March 14, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 5, Circular 2, No. 1191/3.
86. By indifference, I do not suggest that the U.S. Immigration Service's purpose was to service immigrants. Rather, my arguments emphasize the lack of scrutiny in enforcing a standard of immigration admission on the part of either government when a U.S. or Canadian immigration officer was aware that an immigrant was in transit through the officer's country and was not going to stay there. A Canadian officer's frank acknowledgement illustrates this point. Referring to a U.S. accusation against Canada's laxity toward Chinese who went there to smuggle themselves across the border, the officer stated in 1891, "They [Chinese] come here to your country. You can't stop it, and we don't care." Cited in Lucy Salyer, Laws as Harsh as Tigers: Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), 99.
87. P. L. Prentis to Morikawa, November 30, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a.
88. T. Nosse, Consul General of Japan for the Dominion of Canada, Ottawa, to the U.S. Inspector of Immigration, Montreal, December 10, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a; ibid., December 9, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b, No. 6102;
89. ibid., December 10, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a.
90. The inquiry by the Japanese diplomats later revealed that the order was not issued by the Canadian government but was dictated by a Vancouver quarantine official addressing steamship companies. Subsequently, the edict was withdrawn upon Nosse and Scott's meeting. T. Nosse, Consul General of Japan for the Dominion of Canada, Ottawa, to Viscount Hayashi Kaoru, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, October 2, 1907, in Eiryô Kanada ni okeru Honpôjin Imin Seigen oyobi Haiseki no Ikken, vol. 7, Diplomatic Record Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Tokyo; Morikawa, Consul of Japan in Vancouver, to Viscount Hayashi Kaoru, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, September 27, 28, October 2, 1907, in ibid.
91. The letter from Clark to Nosse stated that "passengers traveled on passports and tickets to the United States and expressed a desire to go to a destination in the United States." If they had a ticket to go to the U.S., their intention was clear, although concealed, namely, that they had a desire to go to a destination in the U.S. John H. Clark to T. Nosse, December 13, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a.
92. See also P. L. Prentis, Inspector in Charge to Morikawa, Japanese Consul, Vancouver, BC, November 30, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102.
93. B. A. Hunter, Office of Inspector in Charge, Port of Vancouver, BC, to Commissioner of Immigration, Montreal, December 19, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b, No. 6102.
94. "Welcome to Consul General Yata," Tairiku Nippô (Vancouver), February 11, 1908.
95. Azuma, Between Two Empires, 22-25, 156-57;
96. Andrea Geiger, "Negotiating the Boundaries of Race and Class: Meiji Diplomatic Responses to North American Categories of Exclusion," BC Studies (Winter-Spring 2007-2008): 13-36.
97. B. A. Hunter to Commissioner of Immigration, Montreal, Canada, December 20, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b, No. 6102.
98. Drew Keeling, "The Economics of Migrant Transport between Europe and the United States, 1900-1914," Working Papers, UC World History Workshop, UC Berkeley, November 2005, 8-16. His study concerns European-based migration transporters for the transatlantic.
99. More recently, Per Kristian Sebak has presented an analysis of the transatlantic migrant transportations including the World War I years. See Sebak, "The Transmigration Process through Scandinavia, 1904-1918" ( paper presented at the annual conference of the Social Science History Association, Long Beach, CA, November 2009).
100. Yamada, Fune ni miru Nihonjin Iminshi, 35-30.
101. Keeling, "The Economics of Migrant Transport," 16.
102. Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America (Princeton, NJ, 2002), 124-25, 138.
103. Telegram, Dodwell & Co., to Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Immigration, December 20, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b;
104. A. Stewart, Dodwell & Co., July 31, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102.
105. John H. Clark to F. P. Sargent, General-Commissioner of Immigration, January 18, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102.
106. Telegram, Frank Waterhouse & Co., to Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Department of Commerce and Labor, December 27, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b.
107. Braun Report, "Japanese Aliens," undated, NARA, File 51630, Folder 44a.
108. Secretary of State, Department of State, Washington, DC, to Secretary of Commerce and Labor, December 28, 1905, NARA, File 52011-C, No. 48465;
109. John H. Clark to H. P. Sargent, General-Commissioner of Immigration, November 17, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder, 14a, No. 6102;
110. John H. Clark to F. P. Sargent, August 6, 1907, NARA, File 51564, Folder 6.
111. John H. Clark to H. P. Sargent, General-Commissioner of Immigration, December 9, 1907, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102.
112. p. 2, see also Geiger "Caught in theGap: The Transit Privilege and North America's Ambiguous Borders," in Bridging National Borders in North America: Building and Break- ing boundaries between Canada, the United States and Mexico, Andrew Graybill and Benjamin H. Johnson eds. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010): 199-221, especially 200, 216-217.
113. John H. Clark to F. P. Sargent, January 18, 1908, NARA, File 51931, Folder 14b, No. 6102, Exhibit A, "Reasons given by Japanese for disembarking at Victoria, B.C., instead of proceeding to U.S. points," June 15 to December 31, 1907.
114. John J. Bukowczyk, "The Production of History, the Becoming of Place," in Permeable Border: The Great Lakes Basin as Transnational Region, 1650-1990, ed. John J. Bukowczyk, Nora Faires, David R. Smith, and Randy William Widdis (Pittsburgh, 2005), chap. 1, 1-9, esp. 3-4.
115. In the same volume, see also Nora Faires, chap. 4, "Leaving the 'Land of the Second Chance': Migration from Ontario to the Upper Midwest in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," and David R. Smith, chap. 5
116. "Structuring the Permeable Border: Channeling and Regulating Cross-Border Traffic in Labor, Capital, and Goods." 62.
117. Ettinger, "Imagining Lines," chaps. 3, 4.
118. John H. Clark to H. P. Sargent, Vancouver, December 9, 1907, NARA File 51931, Folder 14a, No. 6102;
119. Frank Waterhouse & Co. to Oscar S. Straus, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Department of Labor, Washington, DC, December 27, 1907, NARA, file number missing.
120. Morikawa Kishirô to the Minister of Foreign Affairs Baron Komuro Jyutarô, April, 16, 1904, in "Honpô Fusei-gyo Torishimari Kankei Zakken," the Diplomatic Record Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Tokyo, vol. 2. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Oharazaki Kazuhiro for bringing this document to my attention.