The use of cholinesterases in ecotoxicology

Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

Volumn 212, Issue , 2011, Pages 29-59

  Nunes, Bruno ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSIDADE FERNANDO PESSOA   (Portugal)

^b UNIVERSITY OF AVEIRO   (Portugal)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHOLINESTERASE; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR;

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; CHEMISTRY; ECOTOXICOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; METABOLISM; METHODOLOGY; POLLUTANT;

ANIMALS; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITORS; CHOLINESTERASES; ECOTOXICOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS;

EID: 79953653234     PISSN: 01795953     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-8453-1_2     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Aamodt S, Konestabo HS, Sverdrup LE, Gudbrandsen M, Reinecke SA, Reinecke AJ, Stenersen J (2007) Recovery of cholinesterase activity in the earthworm Eisenia fetida Savigny following exposure to chlorpyrifos. Environ Toxicol Chem 26(9): 1963-7. (Pubitemid 47373212)
2. Andersen RA, Aune T, Barstad JAB (1978) Characteristics of cholinesterase of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. Compar Biochem Physiol Part C: Compar Pharmacol 61(1): 81-87. (Pubitemid 9037223)
3. Arufe MI, Arellano JM, García L, Albendín G, Sarasquete C (2007) Cholinesterase activity in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) larvae: characterization and sensitivity to the organophosphate azinphosmethyl. Aquat Toxicol 84: 328-336. (Pubitemid 47260732)
4. Bain D, Buttemer WA, Astheimer L, Fildes K, Hooper MJ (2004) Effects of sublethal fenitrothion ingestion on cholinesterase inhibition, standard metabolism, thermal preference, and prey-capture ability in the Australian central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps, Agamidae) Environ Toxicol Chem 23(1): 109-16. (Pubitemid 38049659)
5. Barata C, Solayan A, Porte C (2004) Role of B-esterases in assessing toxicity of organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos, malathion) and carbamate (carbofuran) pesticides to Daphnia magna. Aquat Toxicol 66: 125-139. (Pubitemid 38229248)
6. Bonacci S, Corsi I, Focardi S (2009) Cholinesterases in the Antarctic scallop Adamussium colbecki: Characterization and sensitivity to pollutants. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 72: 1481-1488.
7. Boschetti N, Brodbeck U (1996) The membrane anchor of mammalian brain acetylcholinesterase consists of a single glycosylated protein of 22 kDa. FEBS Letters 380: 133-136. (Pubitemid 26058745)
8. Brown M, Davies IM, Moffat CF, Redshaw J, Craft JA (2004) Characterisation of choline esterases and their tissue and subcellular distribution in mussel (Mytilus edulis) Mar Environ Res 57: 155-169. (Pubitemid 37315828)
9. Caselli F, Gastaldi L, Gambi N, Fabbri E (2006) In vitro characterization of cholinesterases in the earthworm Eisenia andrei. Comp Biochem Physiol, Part C 143: 416-421. (Pubitemid 44080690)
10. Chebbi SG, David M (2009) Neurobehavioral responses of the freshwater teleost, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus.) under quinalphos intoxication. Biotechnol Animal Husband 25(3-4): 241-249.
11. Choi RCY, Yama SCY, Hui B, Wan DCC, Tsim KWK (1998) Over-expression of acetylcholinesterase stimulates the expression of agrin in NG108-15 cells. Neurosci Lett 248: 17-20. (Pubitemid 28267092)
12. Chuiko GM (2000) Comparative study of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase in brain and serum of several freshwater fish: specific activities and in vitro inhibition by DDVP, an organophosphorus pesticide. Compar Biochem Physiol, part C Toxicol Pharmacol 127(3): 233-42.
13. 2 exposure. Mar Environ Res 58: 401-406. (Pubitemid 38738908)
14. Cunha I, Mangas-Ramirez E, Guilhermino L (2007) Effects of copper and cadmium on cholinesterase and glutathione S-transferase activities of two marine gastropods (Monodonta lineata and Nucella lapillus). Compar Biochem Physiol, Part C 145: 648-657. (Pubitemid 46671531)
15. Dahm KCS, Rückert C, Tonial EM, Bonan CD (2006) In vitro exposure of heavy metals on nucleotidase and cholinesterase activities from the digestive gland of Helix aspersa. Compar Biochem Physiol, Part C 143: 316-320. (Pubitemid 44183642)
16. Dauberschmidt C, Dietrich DR, Christian Schlatter C (1997) Esterases in the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha: activities, inhibition, and binding to organophosphates. Aquat Toxicol 37(4): 295-305. (Pubitemid 27223358)
17. Denoyelle R, Rault M, Mazzia C, Mascle O, Capowiez Y (2007) Cholinesterase activity as a biomarker of pesticide exposure in Allolobophora chlorotica earthworms living in apple orchards under different management strategies. Environ Toxicol Chem 26(12): 2644-9. (Pubitemid 350252940)
18. Deschênes-Furry J, Bélanger G, Perrone-Bizzozero N, Jasmin BJ (2003) Post-transcriptional Regulation of Acetylcholinesterase mRNAs in Nerve Growth Factor-treated PC12 Cells by the RNA-binding Protein HuD. J Biolog Chem 278(8): 5710-5717. (Pubitemid 36800815)
19. Duquesne S (2006) Effects of an organophosphate on Daphnia magna at suborganismal and organismal levels: Implications for population dynamics. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 65: 145-150. (Pubitemid 44190108)
20. Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres V, Featherstone RM (1961) A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochem Pharmacol 7: 88-95.
21. Escartín E, Porte C (1996) Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition in the Crayfish Procambarus clarkii Exposed to Fenitrothion. Ecotoxicolo Environ Saf 34: 160-164.
22. Eto M (1984) Organophosphorus Pesticides: Organic and Biological Chemistry. Ohio: CRC Press, Inc. 1974.
23. Falugi C, Amaroli A, Evangelisti V, Viarengo A, Delmonte Corrado MU (2002) Cholinesterase activity and effects of its inhibition by neurotoxic drugs in Dictyostelium discoideum. Chemosphere 48: 407-414. (Pubitemid 34650943)
24. Ferrari A, Venturino A, Pechén de D'Angelo AM (2007) Muscular and brain cholinesterase sensitivities to azinphos methyl and carbaryl in the juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Compar Biochem Physiol, Part C 146: 308-313. (Pubitemid 47127005)
25. Forget J, Livet S, Leboulenger F (2002) Partial purification and characterization of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from the estuarine copepod Eurytemora affinis (Poppe). Compar Biochem Physiol Part C 132: 85-92. (Pubitemid 34556931)
26. Forget J, Bocquené G (1999) Partial purification and enzymatic characterization of acetylcholinesterase from the intertidal marine copepod Tigriopus brevicornis. Compar Biochem Physiol Part B 123: 345-350. (Pubitemid 29414772)
27. Fournier D, Bride JM, Karch F, Bergé JB (1988) Acetylcholinesterase from Drosophila melanogaster-Identification of two subunits encoded by the same gene. FEBS Letters 238(2): 333-337.
28. Frasco MF, Fournier D, Carvalho F, Guilhermino L (2006) Cholinesterase from the common prawn (Palaemon serratus) eyes: Catalytic properties and sensitivity to organophosphate and carbamate compounds. Aquat Toxicol 77: 412-421.
29. Frasco MF, Fournier D, Carvalho F, Guilhermino L (2005) Do metals inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE)? Implementation of assay conditions for the use of AChE activity as a biomarker of metal toxicity. Biomarkers 10(5): 360-375. (Pubitemid 41701226)
30. Fulton MH, Key PB (2001) Acetylcholinesterase inhibition in estuarine fish and invertebrates as an indicator of organophosphorus insecticide exposure and effects. Environ Toxicol Chem 20: 37-45. (Pubitemid 32061543)
31. Gambi N, Pasteris A, Fabbri E (2007) Acetylcholinesterase activity in the earthworm Eisenia andrei at different conditions of carbaryl exposure. Compar Biochem Physiol, Part C 145: 678-685. (Pubitemid 46660758)
32. Gao JR, Zhu KY (2002) Increased expression of an acetylcholinesterase gene may confer organophosphate resistance in the greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Homoptera: Aphididae). Pesticide Biochem Physiol 73: 164-173. (Pubitemid 35352992)
33. Garcia LM, Castro B, Ribeiro R, Guilhermino L (2000) Characterization of cholinesterase from guppy (Poecilia reticulata) muscle and its in vitro inhibition by environmental contaminants. Biomarkers 5(4): 274-284. (Pubitemid 30641271)
34. Giacobini E (2004) Cholinesterase inhibitors: new roles and therapeutic alternatives. Pharmacological Res 50: 433-440. (Pubitemid 39078534)
35. Gonçalves A, Padrão J, Gonçalves F, Nunes B (2010) In vivo acute effects of several pharmaceutical drugs (diazepam, clofibrate, clofibric acid) and detergents (sodium dodecyl-sulphate and benzalkonium chloride) on cholinesterases from Gambusia holbrooki. Fresenius Environ Bull 19(4): 628-634.
36. Greene LA, Rukenstein A (1981) Regulation of Acetylcholinesterase Activity by Nerve Growth Factor. J Biolog Chem 256(12): 6363-6367.
37. Guilhermino L, Lacerda MN, Nogueira AJA, Soares AMVM (2000) In vitro and in vivo inhibition of Daphnia magna acetylcholinesterase by surfactant agents: possible implications for contamination biomonitoring. Sci Tot Env 247: 137-141. (Pubitemid 30145666)
38. Hai DQ, Ilona Varga Sz, Matkovics B (1997) Organophosphate effects on antioxidant system of carp (Cyprinus carpio) and catfish (Ictalarus nebulosus). Compar Bioch Physiol 117C(1): 83-88. (Pubitemid 27264364)
39. Iko WM, Archuleta AS, Knopf FL (2003) Plasma cholinesterase levels of mountain plovers (Charadrius montanus) wintering in central California, USA. Environ Toxicol Chem 22(1): 119-25. (Pubitemid 35471328)
40. Jbilo O, Toutant JP, Vatsis KP, Chatonnet A, Lockridge O (1994) Promoter and Transcription Start Site of Human and Rabbit Butyrylcholinesterase Genes. J Biolog Chem 269(33): 20829-20837. (Pubitemid 24266443)
41. Jokanovic M (2001) Biotransformation of organophosphorus compounds. Toxicology 166: 139-160.
42. Jung JH, Addison RF, Shim WJ (2007) Characterization of cholinesterases in marbled sole, Limanda yokohamae, and their inhibition in vitro by the fungicide iprobenfos. Mar Environl Res 63: 471-478 (Pubitemid 46483668)
43. Key PB, Fulton MH (2002) Characterization of cholinesterase activity in tissues of the grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio). Pesticide Biochem Physiol 72: 186-192. (Pubitemid 34706633)
44. Kitz RJ, Braswell LM, Ginsburg S (1970) On the question: is acetylcholinesterase an allosteric protein? Molecular Pharmacol 6: 108-121.
45. Klumpp D, Humphrey C, King SC (2007) Biomarker responses in coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) as an indicator of exposure to contaminants in a coral reef environment. Austral J Ecotoxicol 13: 9-17.
46. Kopecka J, Rybakowas A, Barsiené J, Pempkowiak J (2004) AChE levels in mussels and fish collected off Lithuania and Poland (southern Baltic). Oceanologia 46(3): 405-418.
47. Kozlovskaya VI, Mayer FL, Menzikova OV, Chuyko GM (1993) Cholinesterases of aquatic animals. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 132: 117-142. (Pubitemid 23220652)
48. Kristoff G, Guerrero NR, Cochón AC (2010) Inhibition of cholinesterases and carboxylesterases of two invertebrate species, Biomphalaria glabrata and Lumbriculus variegatus, by the carbamate pesticide carbaryl. Aquat Toxicol 96(2): 115-23.
49. Laguerre C, Sanchez-Hernandez JC, Köhler HR, Triebskorn R, Capowiez Y, Rault M, Mazzia C (2009) B-type esterases in the snail Xeropicta derbentina: An enzymological analysis to evaluate their use as biomarkers of pesticide exposure. Environ Pollut 157: 199-207.
50. Leticia AG, Gerardo GB (2008) Determination of esterase activity and characterization of cholinesterases in the reef fish Haemulon plumieri. Ecotoxicol Environm Saf 71: 787-797.
51. Li M-H (2008) Effects of nonionic and ionic surfactants on survival, oxidative stress, and cholinesterase activity of planarian. Chemosphere 70: 1796-1803 (Pubitemid 351173247)
52. MacGregor JA, Plunkett LM, Youngren SH, Manley A, Plunkett JB, Starr TB (2005) Humans appear no more sensitive than laboratory animals to the inhibition of red blood cell cholinesterase by dichlorvos. Regulatory Toxicol Pharmacol 43: 150-167. (Pubitemid 41427808)
53. Magnotti RA, Zaino JP, McConnell RS (1994) Pesticide-sensitive fish muscle cholinesterases. Compar Biochem Physiol Part C: Pharmaco, Toxicol Endocrinol 108(2): 187-194. (Pubitemid 24295562)
54. Mack A, Robitzki A (2000) The key role of butyrylcholinesterase during neurogenesis and neural disorders: an antisense-5'butyrylcholinesterase-DNA study. Progress in Neurobiol 60: 607-628. (Pubitemid 30100400)
55. Malany S, Baker N, Verweyst N, Medhekar R, Quinn DM, Velan B, Kronman C, Shafferman A (1999) Theoretical and experimental investigations of electrostatic effects on acetylcholinesterase catalysis and inhibition. Chemico-Biolog Interact 119-120: 99-110. (Pubitemid 29278543)
56. Massoulié J, Perrier N, Noureddine H, Liang D, Bon S (2008) Old and new questions about cholinesterases. Chemico-Biolog Interact 175: 30-44
57. Massoulié J, Bon S (1982) The molecular forms of cholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase in vertebrates. Ann Rev Neurosci 5: 57-106.
58. Maul JD, Farris JL (2005) Monitoring exposure of northern cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis, to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides: enzyme activity, reactivations, and indicators of environmental stress. Environ Toxicol Chem 24(7): 1721-30. (Pubitemid 40917194)
59. McInnes PF, Andersen DE, Hoff DJ, Hooper MJ, Kinkell LL (1996) Monitoring exposure of nestling songbirds to agricultural application of an organophosphorus insecticide using cholinesterase activity. Environ Toxicol Chem 15(4): 544-552. (Pubitemid 26110328)
60. Melo JB, Agostinho P, Oliveira CR (2003) Involvement of oxidative stress in the enhancement of acetylcholinesterase activity induced by amyloid beta-peptide. Neurosci Res 45: 117-127. (Pubitemid 36044475)
61. Metcalfe M, McWilliams B, Hueth B, Van Steenwyk R, Sunding D, Swoboda A, Zilberman D (2002) Report: The Economic Importance of Organophosphates in California Agriculture. California Department of Food and Agriculture.
62. Monteiro M, Quintaneiro C, Morgado F, Soares AMVM, Guilhermino L (2005) Characterization of the cholinesterases present in head tissues of the estuarine fish Pomatoschistus microps: Application to biomonitoring. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 62: 341-347 (Pubitemid 41430382)
63. Mora P, Fournier D, Narbonne JF (1999) Cholinesterases from the marine mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis Lmk. and M. edulis L. and from the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fluminea Müller. Compar Biochem Physiol Part C 122: 353-361. (Pubitemid 29127135)
64. Nunes B, Carvalho F, Guilhermino L (2005) Characterization and use of the total head soluble cholinesterases from mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) for screening of anticholinesterase activity. J Enzym Inhibit Medic Chem 20(4): 369-376. (Pubitemid 41269284)
65. Padilla S (1995) Regulatory and research issues related to cholinesterase inhibition. Toxicology 102: 215-220.
66. Panda S, Sahu SK (2004) Recovery of acetylcholine esterase activity of Drawida willsi (Oligochaeta) following application of three pesticides to soil. Chemosphere 55: 283-290. (Pubitemid 38175281)
67. Parsons KC, Matz AC, Hooper MJ, Pokras MA (1999) Monitoring wading bird exposure to agricultural chemicals using serum cholinesterase activity. Environ Toxicol Chem 19(5): 1317-1323. (Pubitemid 30230880)
68. Pham TPT, Cho CW, Yun YS (2010) Environmental fate and toxicity of ionic liquids: A review. Water Res 44: 352-372.
69. Principato GB, Contenti S, Talesa V, Mangiabene C, Pascolini R, Rosi G (1989) Propionylcholinesterase from Allolobophora caliginosa. Compar Biochem Physiol Part C: Compar Pharmacol 94(1): 23-27. (Pubitemid 20047127)
70. Principato GB, Ambrosini MV, Menghini A, Giovannini E, Dell'Agata M (1978) Multiple forms of acetylcholinesterase in Allolobophora caliginosa: Purification and partial characterization. Compar Biochem Physiol Part C: Compar Pharmacol 61(1): 147-151. (Pubitemid 9037232)
71. Rahman MF, Siddiqui MKJ, Jamil K (2000) Inhibition of Acetylcholinesterase and Different ATPases by a Novel Phosphorothionate (RPR-II) in Rat Brain. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 47: 125-129.
72. Rault M, Mazzia C, Capowiez Y (2007) Tissue distribution and characterization of cholinesterase activity in six earthworm species. Compar Biochem Physiol, Part B 147: 340-346. (Pubitemid 46561586)
73. Rocío Marcos M, Sánchez-Yague J, Hernéndez- Hernández A, Llanillo M (1998) Amphiphilic and hydrophilic forms of acetylcholinesterase from sheep platelets. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1415: 163-173. (Pubitemid 29050770)
74. Rodríguez-Castellano L, Sanchez-Hernandez JC (2007a) Earthworm biomarkers of pesticide contamination: Current status and perspectives. J Pesticide Sci 32: 360-371. (Pubitemid 350206957)
75. Rodríguez-Castellanos L, Sanchez-Hernandez JC (2007b) Chemical Reactivation and Aging Kinetics of Organophosphorus-Inhibited Cholinesterases from Two Earthworms Species. Environ Toxicol Chem 26(9): 1992-2000. (Pubitemid 47373216)
76. Rodríguez-Fuentes G, Armstrong J, Schlenk D (2008) Characterization of muscle cholinesterases from two demersal flatfish collected near a municipal wastewater outfall in Southern California. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 69: 466-471. (Pubitemid 351305028)
77. Rodríguez-Fuentes G, Gold-Bouchot G (2004) Characterization of cholinesterase activity from different tissues of Nile tilapia (Oreochromus niloticus). Mar Environ Res 58: 505-509. (Pubitemid 38738922)
78. Romani R, Antognelli C, Baldracchini F, De Santis A, Isani G, Giovannini E, Rosi G (2003) Increased acetylcholinesterase activities in specimens of Sparus auratus exposed to sublethal copper concentrations. Chemico-Biological Interact 145: 321-329. (Pubitemid 36549115)
79. Sanchez JC, Fossi MC, Focardi S (1997) Serum "B" Esterases as a Nondestructive Biomarker for Monitoring the Exposure of Reptiles to Organophosphorus Insecticides. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 37: 45-52. (Pubitemid 27456439)
80. Sánchez-Fortún S, Barahona V (2001) The use of carbamates, atropine, and 2-pyridine aldoxime methoiodide in the protection of Artemia salina against poisoning by carbophenothion. Environ Toxicol Chem 20(9): 2008-2013. (Pubitemid 32772133)
81. Sánchez-Hernandez JC (2007) Ecotoxicological perspectives of B-esterases in the assessment of pesticide contamination. In: Plattenberg RH (ed.) Environmental Pollution: New Research. Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA, pp. 1-45.
82. Sánchez-Hernández JC, Carbonell R, Henríquez Pérez A, Montealegre M, Gómez L (2004) Inhibition of plasma butyrylcholinesterase activity in the lizard Gallotia galloti palmae by pesticides: a field study. Environ Pollut 132: 479-488. (Pubitemid 39119517)
83. Sanchez-Hernandez JC (2003) Evaluating reptile exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting agrochemicals by serum butyrylcholinesterase activity. Environ Toxicol Chem 22(2): 296-301. (Pubitemid 36105868)
84. Sanchez-Hernandez JC, Sanchez BM (2002) Lizard cholinesterases as biomarkers of pesticide exposure: enzymological characterization. Environ Toxicol Chem 21(11): 2319-25. (Pubitemid 35155125)
85. Sánchez-Hernandez JC (2001) Wildlife exposure to organophosphorus insecticides. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 172: 21-63.
86. Sánchez-Hernandez JC, Walker CH (2000) In vitro and in vivo cholinesterase inhibition in Lacertides by phosphonate-and phosphorothioate-type organophosphates. Pesticide Biochem Physiol 67: 1-12. (Pubitemid 30416588)
87. Sancho E, Fernandez-Vega C, Sanchez M, Ferrando MD, Andreu-Moliner E (2000) Alterations on AChE Activity of the Fish Anguilla anguilla as Response to Herbicide-Contaminated Water. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 46: 57-63. (Pubitemid 30331820)
88. Sancho E, Ferrando MD, Andreu E (1998) In vivo inhibition of AChE activity in the European eel Anguilla anguilla exposed to technical grade fenitrothion. Comparat Biochem Physiol Part C 120: 389-395. (Pubitemid 29027716)
89. Sandahl JF, Baldwin DH, Jenkins JJ, Scholz NL (2005) Comparative thresholds for acetylcholinesterase inhibition and behavioral impairment in Coho salmon exposed to chlorpyrifos. Environ Toxicol Chem 24(1): 136-145. (Pubitemid 39658152)
90. Schmidt SR (2003) Reptile Cholinesterase Characterization and Use in Monitoring Anticholinesterases. Thesis in Environmental Toxicology. Texas Tech University.
91. Schmidt GH, Ibrahim NMM (1994) Heavy metal content (Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+) in various body parts: Its impact on cholinesterase activity and binding glycoproteins in the grasshopper Aiolopus thalassinus adults. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 29(2): 148-164.
92. Scott-Fordsmand JJ, Weeks JM (2000) Biomarkers in earthworms. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 165:117-59.
93. Schweitzer ES (1993) Regulated and constitutive secretion of distinct molecular forms of acetylcholinesterase from PC12 cells. J Cell Sci 106: 731-740. (Pubitemid 23346786)
94. Small DH, Michaelson S, Sberna G (1996) Non-classical actions of cholinesterases: role in cellular differentiation, tumorigenesis and Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Internat 5/6: 453-483. (Pubitemid 26161318)
95. Solé M, Lobera G, Lima D, Reis-Henriques MA, Santos MM (2008) Esterases activities and lipid peroxidation levels in muscle tissue of the shanny Lipophrys pholis along several sites from the Portuguese Coast. Mar Pollut Bull 56: 999-1007.
96. Somnuek C, Cheevaporn V, Saengkul C and Beamish FWH (2007) Variability in Acetylcholinesterase upon Exposure to Chlorpyrifos and Carbaryl in Hybrid Catfish. ScienceAsia 33: 301-305.
97. Stefano B, Ilaria C, Silvano F (2008) Cholinesterase activities in the scallop Pecten jacobaeus: Characterization and effects of exposure to aquatic contaminants. Sci Tot Env 392: 99-109.
98. Stenersen J, Brekke E, Engelstad F (1992) Earthworms for toxicity testing; species differences in response towards cholinesterase inhibiting insecticides. Soil Biol Biochem 24(12): 1761-1764. (Pubitemid 24407054)
99. Stenersen J (1980) Esterases of earthworms. Part I: Characterisation of the cholinesterases in Eisenia foetida (Savigny) by substrates and inhibitors. Compar Biochem Physiol Part C: Compar Pharmacol 66(1): 37-44.
100. Sturm A, Silva de Assis HC, Hansen PD (1999a) Cholinesterases of marine teleost fish: enzymological characterization and potential use in the monitoring of neurotoxic contamination. Mar Environ Res 47: 389-398. (Pubitemid 29090218)
101. Sturm A, Wogram J, Hansen PD, Liess M (1999b) Potential use of cholinesterase in monitoring low levels of organophosphates in small streams: natural variability in three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and relation to pollution. Environ Toxicol Chem 18(2): 194-200. (Pubitemid 29058959)
102. Talesa V, Romani R, Antognelli C, Giovannini E, Rosi G (2001) Soluble and membrane-bound acetylcholinesterases in Mytilus galloprovincialis (Pelecypoda: Filibranchia) from the northern Adriatic sea. Chemico-Biological Interact 134: 151-166. (Pubitemid 32304508)
103. Talesa V, Romani R, Rosi G, Giovannini E (1997) Acetylcholinesterase in Spirographis spallanzanii (Polychaeta: Sedentaria): Presence of two dimeric membrane-bound forms. Biochimie 79: 397-405. (Pubitemid 27462522)
104. Talesa V, Grauso M, Giovannini E, Rosi G, Toutant JP (1995a) Acetylcholinesterase in tentacles in Octopus vulgaris (cephalopoda). Histochemical localization and characterization of a specific high salt-soluble and heparin-soluble fraction of globular forms. Neurochem Internat 27(2): 201-211.
105. Talesa V, Grauso M, Giovannini E, Rosi G, Toutant JP (1995b) Solubilization, molecular forms, purification and substrate specificity of two acetylcholinesterases in the medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis). Biochem J 306: 687-692.
106. Tsim KWK (1998) The signaling pathway of calcitonin gene-related peptide-induced acetylcholinesterase expression in muscle is mediated by cyclic AMP. Abstract book of the Xth International Symposium on Cholinergic Mechanisms, Arcachon, France September 1-5, 1998: 109.
107. Valbonesi P, Sartor G, Fabbri E (2003) Characterization of cholinesterase activity in three bivalves inhabiting the North Adriatic sea and their possible use as sentinel organisms for biosurveillance programmes. Sci To Environ 312: 79-88. (Pubitemid 36836205)
108. Varó I, Navarro JC, Amat F, Guilhermino L (2003) Effect of dichlorvos on cholinesterase activity of the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). Pesticide Biochem Physiol 75: 61-72. (Pubitemid 36521978)
109. Varó I, Navarro JC, Amat F, Guilhermino L(2002) Characterisation of cholinesterases and evaluation of the inhibitory potential of chlorpyrifos and dichlorvos to Artemia salina and Artemia parthenogenetica. Chemosphere 48: 563-569. (Pubitemid 34654385)
110. Vermeire T, McPhail R, Waters M (2001) D. Organophosphorous pesticides in the environment. World Health Organization. IV Meeting Report of the International Workshop on Approaches to Integrated Risk Assessment: 1-18.
111. Wan DCC, Choi RCY, Siow NL, Tsim KWK (2000) The promoter of human acetylcholinesterase is activated by a cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate- dependent pathway in cultured NG108-15 neuroblastoma cells. Neurosc Lett 288: 81-85. (Pubitemid 30408443)
112. Wang J, Grisle S, Schlenk D (2001) Effects of Salinity on Aldicarb Toxicity in Juvenile Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis × chrysops) Toxicolog Sci 64: 200-207. (Pubitemid 33130311)
113. Wogram J, Sturm A, Segner H, Liesse M (2001) Effects of parathion on acetylcholinesterase, butyrilcholinesterase, and carboxylesterase in three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatues) following short-term exposure. Environ Toxicol Chem 20(7): 1528-1531. (Pubitemid 32550013)
114. Xuereb B, Noury P, Felten V, Garric J, Geffard O (2007) Cholinesterase activity in Gammarus pulex (Crustacea Amphipoda): characterization and effects of chlorpyrifos. Toxicology 236: 178-189. (Pubitemid 46992696)
115. Yang L, He HY, Zhang XJ (2002) Increased expression of intranuclear AChE involved in apoptosis of SK-N-SH cells. Neurosci Res 42: 261-268. (Pubitemid 34414986)
116. Zinkl JG, Lochkart WL, Kenny SA, Ward FJ (1991) The effects of cholinesterase inhibiting insecticides on fish. In: Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Insecticides. Their Impact on wildlife and the Environment. Mineau P (ed), pp. 234-243. Elsevier, New York.