The securitisation of avian influenza: International discourses and domestic politics in Asia

Review of International Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 141-166

  Curley, Melissa G ^a   Herington, Jonathan ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79953102472     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210510000537     Document Type: Article

References (153)

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6. Other facilitating conditions posited by McInnes suggest that in order for a disease to be recognised as a security issue: 'it must have substantial political effect; it cannot be dealt with nationally or has implications beyond national borders; and it has legitimacy as a security issue - a claim is made that the issue can be presented as a threat in security terms.' (emphasis in original);
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26. Priyankar Upadhyaya, 'Securitisation Matrix in South Asia; Bangladeshi Migrants as Enemy Aliens', in Caballero-Anthony, Emmers and Acharya (eds), Non-Traditional Security in Asia. Dilemmas in Securitization (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006).
27. Barry Buzan and Ole Wæver, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
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29. Balzacq, 'The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context', p. 172.
30. Balzacq, 'The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context', p. 180.
31. Balzacq, 'The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context', p. 184.
32. Juha A. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitisation to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders', European Journal of International Relations, 14 (2008).
33. Juha A. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitisation to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders', European Journal of International Relations, 14 (2008). p. 69.
34. Juha A. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitisation to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders', European Journal of International Relations, 14 (2008). p. 68.
35. Juha A. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitisation to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders', European Journal of International Relations, 14 (2008). p. 68.
36. See Juha A. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitisation to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders', European Journal of International Relations, 14 (2008). p. 68.
37. Mely Caballero-Anthony, Ralf Emmers and Amitav Acharya (eds), Non-traditional security in Asia: dilemmas in securitization (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006);
38. and Melissa Curley and Siu-lun Wong (eds), Security and Migration in Asia: The Dynamics of Securitisation (London: Routledge, 2008).
39. Joseph Liow, 'Malaysia's Approach to Indonesian Migrant Labour: Securitization, Politics, or Catharsis?', in Caballero-Anthony, Emmers and Acharya (eds), Non-Traditional Security in Asia: Dilemmas in Securitization (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006);
40. see also Introduction, Conclusion and chapter by Elizabeth Wishnick, 'The Securitisation of Chinese Migration to the Russian Far East', in Curley and Siu-lun (eds), Security and Migration in Asia: The Dynamics of Securitisation (London: Routledge, 2008).
41. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization', p. 69.
42. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization', p. 69.
43. This is precisely the contradiction identified in Joseph Liow's critique of the securitisation framework in his examination of Malaysia's approach to Indonesian migrant labour Liow, 'Malaysia's Approach to Indonesian Migrant Labour', pp. 61-2.
44. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization', p. 70.
45. Kelley Lee and David P. Fidler, 'Avian and pandemic influenza: Progress and problems with health governance', Global Public Health, 2 (2007), p. 218.
46. Recent advances within the International Health Regulations, although extending the WHO's powers, do not fundamentally change the reliance on states to accurately report see Kelley Lee and David P. Fidler, 'Avian and pandemic influenza: Progress and problems with health governance', Global Public Health, 2 (2007), p. 221.
47. Kelley Lee, 'Understandings of global health governance: the contested landscape' in Kay and Williams (eds), Global Health Governance: Crisis, Institutions and Political Economy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).
48. Sara E. Davies, 'Securitizing Infectious Disease', International Affairs, 84 (2008);
49. and Stefan Elbe, 'Should HIV/AIDS be securitized? The ethical dilemmas of linking HIV/AIDS and security', International Studies Quarterly, 50 (2006).
50. World Health Organisation, World Health Report 2007: A Safer Future - Global Public Health Security in the 21st Century (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2007).
51. Davies, 'Securitising infectious disease'. p. 301.
52. Lee and Fidler, 'Avian and pandemic influenza', p. 221.
53. The majority of studies have focused on the discourse in developed countries or at the international level. See Alexander Kelle. Discourses on the Securitisation of Public Health - a Survey of Four Countries (2006), available at: {http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/sbtwc/regrev/kelle-securitisationPH.pdf} accessed on 11 March 2009)
54. J. Rushton, R. Viscarra, E. Guerne Bleich and A. McLeod, 'Impact of avian influenza outbreaks in the poultry sectors of five South East Asian countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam) outbreak costs, responses and potential long term control', World's Poultry Science Journal, 61 (2005), pp. 492-93.
55. J. Rushton, R. Viscarra, E. Guerne Bleich and A. McLeod, 'Impact of avian influenza outbreaks in the poultry sectors of five South East Asian countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam) outbreak costs, responses and potential long term control', World's Poultry Science Journal, 61 (2005), pp. 496, 499.
56. World Health Organisation, WHO/WPRO - Officially Confimed Human Influenza A/H5N1 Cases (23 August 2007), available at: {http://www.wpro.who.int/sites/ csr/data/data-Tables.htm} accessed on 31 August 2007.
57. Data extracted from World Health Organisation, WHO/WPRO - Human Avian Influenza A/H5N1 Cases by Onset Date, available at: {http://www.wpro.who.int/ sites/csr/data/data-Graphs.htm} accessed 10 September 2007.
58. Alessandro Cristalli and Ilaria Capua, 'Practical Problems in Controlling H5N1 High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza at Village Level in Vietnam and Introduction of Biosecurity Measures', Avian Diseases, 51 (2007), p. 462.
59. See Ministry of Health (MOH) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), Vietnam: Integrated National Plan for Avian Influenza Control and Human Pandemic Influenza Preparedness and Response (Vietnam: Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2006), p. 1.
60. Tuong Vu, The Political Economy of Avian Influenza Response and Control in Vietnam, STEPS Working Paper 19 (Brighton: STEPS Centre, 2009), p. 15.
61. Dennis Normile, 'Vietnam Battles Bird Flu... and Critics', Science, 309 (2005), p. 368.
62. 'Prompt action ordered to contain bird flu', Saigon Times Daily (9 February 2004);
63. 'Gov't acts strongly against bird flu - Int'l organizations help Vietnam fight epidemic', Saigon Times Daily (5 February 2004).
64. Normile, 'Vietnam Battles Bird Flu', pp. 368-70.
65. Hong Van, 'Ministry requests VND100 billion to vaccinate fowls', Saigon Times Daily (26 May 2005).
66. Son Nguyen, 'Awareness the key deadlock', Saigon Times Daily (4 November 2005);
67. Hong Van and Bac Cuong, 'Ten Provinces Report Bird Flu, Pandemic Feared Nearing', Saigon Times Daily (14 November 2005);
68. and Hong Van and Minh Ngoc, 'Retailers in city plan to take poultry meat off shelves', Saigon Times Daily (9 November 2005).
69. Bac Cuong and Hong Van, 'Gov't meets to lay out emergency plan to fight bird flu', Saigon Times Daily (18 October 2005);
70. and Hong Van, 'City, neighbouring provinces join forces to bird flu', Saigon Times Daily (25 November 2005).
71. Cuong and Van, 'Gov't meets to lay out emergency plan to fight bird flu';
72. Son Nguyen, 'More resources needed to contain bird flu', The Saigon Times Daily (21 January 2005);
73. Hong Van, 'Vietnam culls 90, 000 fowls in one day', Saigon Times Daily (30 November 2005);
74. 'Fight against bird flu continues', Vietnam News Agency Bulletin (27 April 2005);
75. and 'Deputy PM calls on people to fight bird flu', Vietnam News Agency Bulletin (13 March 2007).
76. Bracketed comments are from original Resolution 15/2005/NQ-CP, 'Resolution on Urgent Measures to Prevent the Avian Influenza Epidemic (H5N1) and Type-A (H5N1) Human Influenza Pandemic', (Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2005).
77. 'Deputy PM calls on people to fight bird flu', Vietnam News Agency Bulletin (13 March 2007).
78. Fiona Fleck, 'How SARS changed the world in less than six months', Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 81 (2003), p. 626.
79. Zachary Abuza, Renovating politics in contemporary Vietnam (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001), p. 21.
80. Regina M. Abrami, 'Vietnam in 2002: On the Road to Recovery', Asian Survey, 43 (2003), p. 91.
81. Abuza, Renovating politics in contemporary Vietnam, p. 22.
82. See Ministry of Health (MOH) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), Integrated National Operational Program for Avian and Human Influenza (Vietnam: Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2006), p. i.
83. 'Flu pandemic could kill more people than expected: Deputy PM', Thanh Nien Daily (9 November 2005).
84. See MOH and MARD, Integrated National Operational Program, p. 7.
85. Nguyen, 'More resources needed to contain bird flu'.
86. MOH and MARD, Vietnam: Integrated National Plan for Avian Influenza Control, p. 11.
87. World Health Organisation, Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing - WHO Report 2007 (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2007), pp. 153, 156;
88. and Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and World Health Organisation, AIDS Epidemic Update - December 2006 (Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2006), p. 30. The authors are aware that PEPFAR funding of up to US $36 million was provided to Vietnam during the same period, but this was targeted aid rather than an investment from existing government revenue.
89. Area-culling involves the practice of identifying cases of avian influenza in poultry and then destroying all poultry within a certain radius of the infected flock (usually 3-5km), regardless of whether they exhibit signs of infection.
90. It is difficult to reconcile the notion of economic prosperity being 'existentially threatened', indeed Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde acknowledge the controversy in their chapter on economic referents in Security. Although 'economic loss... (is)...part of the ordinary business of life, it is a matter not of degree but of a possible collapse of welfare' (Buzan et al., Security, p. 102); in this sense, the claim made by the Vietnamese government is consistent with the use of the term 'existentially threatened' as described by Buzan et al.
91. Hong Van, 'Neighbors clash over poultry transport precautions', The Saigon Times Daily (14 Janaury 2005);
92. Vu, The Political Economy of Avian Influenza in Vietnam, p. 46.
93. Vu, The Political Economy of Avian Influenza in Vietnam, p. 46.
94. Vu's recent study highlights this ongoing tension, but re-affirms that 'tough measures' were taken by the central government, in some cases to the detriment of disease control policies (Vu, The Political Economy of Avian Influenza in Vietnam, p. 46.).
95. Also see Hong Van, 'Health Official Calls for More International Aid', Saigon Times Daily (3 November 2005).
96. Sedyaningsih, Isfandari, Setiawaty, Rifati, Harun, Purba, Imari, Giriputra, Blair, Putnam, Uyeki and Soendoro, 'Epidemiology of Cases of H5N1 Virus Infection in Indonesia, July 2005-June 2006', Journal of Infectious Diseases, 196 (2007), p. 522;
97. and Smith, Naipospos, Nguyen, de Jong, Vijaykrishna, Usman, Hassan, Nguyen, Dao, Bui, Leung, Cheung, Rayner, Zhang, Poon, Li, Nguyen, Hien, Farrar, Webster, Chen, Peris and Guan, 'Evolution and adaptation of H5N1 influenza virus in avian and human hosts in Indonesia and Vietnam', Virology, 350 (2006), p. 264.
98. World Health Organisation, Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases of Avian Influenza A/(H5N1) Reported to WHO, available at: {http://www.who.int/csr/ disease/avian-influenza/country/cases-table-2009-03-30/en/index.html accessed 3 April 2008.
99. Yang Yang, M. Elizabeth Halloran, Jonathan D. Sugimoto and Ira M. Longini, 'Detecting Human-to-Human Transmission of Avian Influenza A (H5N1) ', Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13 (2007).
100. Rendi A. Witular, 'Govt confirms bird flu after long cover-up', Jakarta Post (26 January 2004), p. 1.
101. The bird flu scare', Jakarta Post (27 January 2004), p. 6.
102. Zakki P. Hakim, 'Bird flu in RI limited to poultry only, for now', Jakarta Post (6 October 2004), p. 13;
103. LKBN Antara, 'Regional Govts Spearheads of Fight Against Bird Flu, Minister Says', LKBN Antara (15 February 2006);
104. and LKBN Antara, 'Agriculture Minister: Only H5N1 virus infected poultry to be culled', LKBN Antara (21 February 2006).
105. LKBN Antara, 'WB Regrets Cut in Funds for Bird Flu Control in Indonesia', LKBN Antara (24 August 2006);
106. and World Bank, Spending for Development: Making the Most of Indonesia's New Opportunities - Indonesia Public Expenditure Review 2007 (Washington: World Bank, 2007), p. 56.
107. Arie Rukmantara, 'Committee to Prevent Pandemic', Jakarta Post (7 January 2006), p. 2.
108. Indonesian National Committee for Avian Influenza Control and Pandemic Influenza Preparedness, Committee Membership, available at: {http://www. komnasfbpi.go.id/aboutuscom-eng.html} accessed 11 September 2007.
109. 'Minister: Govt Not to Change Policy to Combat Bird Flu', LKBN Antara (28 March 2006);
110. R. A. Witular, 'Mass Cull Unfeasible: Minister', Jakarta Post (12 November 2005), p. 1;
111. E. C. Komandjaja, 'WHO Urges Solid Action Plan to Prevent Bird Flu', Jakarta Post (21 February 2004), p. 4.
112. Alan Sipress, 'Indonesia Neglected Bird Flu until Too Late, Experts Say', Washington Post (20 October 2005), p. A01.
113. 'Caging bird flu', Jakarta Post (21 September 2005), p. 6;
114. Sari P. Setiogi and Multa Fidrus, 'Bird flu outbreak devastating small poultry farms', The Jakarta Post (13 February 2004), p. 3;
115. 'Certain regions not handling bird flu seriously: President', LKBN Antara (28 November 2005).
116. Paul Forster, The Political Economy of Avian Influenza in Indonesia, STEPS Working Paper 17, (Brighton: STEPS Centre, 2009).
117. Martin Enserink, 'Indonesia Earns Flu Accord At World Health Assembly', Science, 316 (2007)
118. The Lancet, 'Global solidairty needed in preparing for pandemic influenza', The Lancet, 369 (2007).
119. Siti Fadilah Supari, Statement by the Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia H. E Dr Siti Fadilah Supari at the 60th World Health Assembly, available at: {http://www.mission-indonesia.org/modules/news.php?lang= en&newsid=154&PHPSESSID=4af1c5827352dcbde4a38f046688c368} accessed 8 October 2007;
120. William New, WHO Kicks Off Talks On Flu Pandemic, Benefits, Access To Vaccines, available at: {http://www.ip-watch.org/weblog/2007/11/21/who-kicks- off-talks-on-flupandemic-benefits-access-to-vaccines/} accessed on 12 March 2008.
121. Mark Forbes, 'US dismisses bird flu claims', Sydney Morning Herald (21 February 2008), p. 9
122. Enserink, 'Indonesia Earns Flu Accord At World Health Assembly'. See n. 73 above.
123. Brian Walsh, Indonesia's Bird Flu Showdown, available at: {http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0, 8599, 1619229, 00.html} accessed on 12 June 2007.
124. World Health Assembly, 'Pandemic influenza preparedness: sharing of influenza viruses and access to vaccines and other benefits', 2007 (WHA 60.28, 2007).
125. For more on the problems of decentralisation see Vedi R. Hadiz, 'Power and Politics in North Sumatra: The Uncompleted Reformasi', in Aspinall and Fealy (eds), Local Power and Politics in Indonesia: Decentralisation and Democratisation (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003);
126. and Vedi R. Hadiz, 'Decentralization and Democracy in Indonesia: A Critique of Neo-Institutionalist Perspectives', Development and Change, 35 (2004).
127. Angel Rabasa and Peter Chalk, Indonesia's Transformation and the Stability of Southeast Asia (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2001), pp. 2-3.
128. Angel Rabasa and Peter Chalk, Indonesia's Transformation and the Stability of Southeast Asia (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2001), p. 48.
129. Hadiz, 'Decentralization and Democracy in Indonesia', p. 708.
130. 'Health Minister Calls for Poultry Ban in Cities', Jakarta Post (19 February 2006), p. 1;
131. 'Stamping Out of Poultry Only at Highly Infected Farms', LKBN Antara (20 September 2005);
132. and 'Minister: Govt Not to Change Policy to Combat Bird Flu', LKBN Antara (28 March 2006).
133. Minako Sakai, 'The Privatisation of Padang Cement: Regional Identity and Economic Hegemony in the New Era of Decentralisation', in Aspinall and Fealy (eds), Local Power and Politics in Indonesia: Decentralisation and Democratisation (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003), p. 160.
134. 'Agriculture Minister: Only H5N1 virus infected poultry to be culled';
135. and 'Regional Govts Spearheads of Fight Against Bird Flu, Minister Says', LKBN Antara.
136. Declan Butler, 'Q & A: Siti Fadilah Supari', Nature, 450 (2007).
137. David Brown, 'Why might constructed nationalist and ethnic ideologies come into confrontation with each other?', The Pacific Review, 15 (2002), p. 566.
138. The legal reasoning behind the decision to withhold samples relied on the Convention on Biological Diversity - which asserts the rights of nations not to have their biosphere exploited, and protects them from the practice of pharmaceutical companies manufacturing unaffordable drugs from compounds found in a countries flora or fauna. For a critique of this reasoning, see David P. Fidler, 'Influenza Virus Sample Sharing, International Law, and Global Health Diplomacy', Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14 (2008).
139. Forster, Avian Influenza in Indonesia;
140. and Vu, Avian Influenza Response and Control in Vietnam.
141. Stritzel, 'Towards a Theory of Securitization', p. 372.
142. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization', pp. 73, 75.
143. Robert Elson, The Idea of Indonesia: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 53.
144. This is not to say that all securitising moves by states in international forums are accepted, merely that they possess the legitimacy, formalised by instruments such as the UN charter, to 'make the claim'.
145. See particularly the discussion (pp. 131-5) about relationships between rulers, elites and peasants in Robert E. Elson, 'International Commerce, the State and Society: Economic and Social Change', in Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
146. Balzacq, 'The Three Faces of Securitization', p. 183.
147. Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization', p. 71.
148. Stritzel, 'Towards a Theory of Securitization', p. 367.
149. For theoretical perspectives see Balzacq, 'The Three Faces of Securitization';
150. and Stritzel, 'Towards a Theory of Securitization';
151. and for empirical analyses of non-democratic, non-Western cases see Vuori, 'Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization';
152. and Wilkinson, 'The Copenhagen School on Tour in Kyrgyzstan'.
153. Hoogensen, 'Bottoms Up! A Toast to Regional Security?', p. 269.