Side effect burden of antipsychotic medication

Schizophrenia, Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 231-259

  Möller, Hans Jürgen ^a   Riedel, Michael ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79952798113     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.3109/9781420080063-21     Document Type: Chapter

References (155)

1. Adityanjee, Aderibigbe YA, Mathews T. Epidemiology of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol 1999; 22: 151–8.
2. Aizenberg D, Zemishlany Z, Weizman A. Cyproheptadine treatment of sexual dysfunction induced by serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Clin Neuropharmacol 1995; 18: 320–4.
3. Al Khatib SM, LaPointe NM, Kramer JM, Califf RM. What clinicians should know about the QT interval. JAMA 2003; 289: 2120–7.
4. Allison DB, Casey DE. Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62(Suppl 7): 22–31.
5. Allison DB, Mentore JL, Heo M et al. Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: a comprehensive research synthesis. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1686–96.
6. Allison DB, Weber MT. Treatment and prevention of obesity: what works, what doesn’t work, and what might work. Lipids 2003; 38: 147–55.
7. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154(Suppl 4): 1–63.
8. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. 2nd ed. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161(Suppl 2): 1–114.
9. Ananth J. Benzodiazepines: selective administration. J Affect Disord 1987; 13: 99–108.
10. Ananth J, Parameswaran S, Gunatilake S, Burgoyne K, Sidhom T. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and atypical antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychiatry 2004a; 65: 464–70.
11. Ananth J, Venkatesh R, Burgoyne K et al. Atypical antipsychotic induced weight gain: pathophysiology and management. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2004b; 16: 75–85.
12. Anghelescu I, Klawe C, Benkert O. Orlistat in the treatment of psychopharmacologically induced weight gain. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20: 716–7.
13. Aquila R, Emanuel M. Interventions for weight gain in adults treated with novel antipsychotics. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 2: 20–3.
14. Arvanitis LA, Miller BG. Multiple fixed doses of “Seroquel“ (quetiapine) in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia: a comparison with haloperidol and placebo. The Seroquel Trial 13 Study Group. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42: 233–46.
15. Atmaca M, Kuloglu M, Tezcan E, Ustundag B. Nizatidine treatment and its relationship with leptin levels in patients with olanzapine-induced weight gain. Hum Psychopharmacol 2003; 18: 457–61.
16. Atmaca M, Kuloglu M, Tezcan E, Ustundag B, Kilic N. Nizatidine for the treatment of patients with quetiapine-induced weight gain. Hum Psychopharmacol 2004; 19: 37–40.
17. Awad AH, Shin GS, Rosenbaum AL, Goldberg RL. Autogenous fascia augmentation of a partially extirpated muscle with a subperiosteal medial orbitotomy approach. J AAPOS 1997; 1: 138–42.
18. Baldwin DS, Birtwistle J. Schizophrenia, antipsychotic drugs and sexual function. Prim Care Psychiatry 1997; 3: 117–22.
19. Ball K, Owen N, Salmon J, Bauman A, Gore CJ. Associations of physical activity with body weight and fat in men and women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25: 914–9.
20. Baptista T, Hernandez L, Prieto LA, Boyero EC, de Mendoza S. Metformin in obesity associated with antipsychotic drug administration: a pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 653–5.
21. Beasley CM Jr, Sanger T, Satterlee W et al. Olanzapine versus placebo: results of a double­-blind, fixed-dose olanzapine trial. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996; 124: 159–67.
22. Bilder RM, Goldman RS, Volavka J et al. Neurocognitive effects of clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, and haloperidol in patients with chronic schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1018–28.
23. Birt J. Management of weight gain associated with antipsychotics. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2003; 15: 49–58.
24. Bollini P, Pampallona S, Orza MJ, Adams ME, Chalmers TC. Antipsychotic drugs: is more worse? A meta-analysis of the published randomized control trials. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 307–16.
25. Borovicka MC, Fuller MA, Konicki PE et al. Phenylpropanolamine appears not to promote weight loss in patients with schizophrenia who have gained weight during clozapine treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63: 345–8.
26. Braude WM, Barnes TR, Gore SM. Clinical characteristics of akathisia. A systematic investigation of acute psychiatric inpatient admissions. Br J Psychiatry 1983; 143: 139–50.
27. Buchanan N, Sharpe C. Clonazepam withdrawal in 13 patients with active epilepsy and drug side effects. Seizure 1994; 3: 271–5.
28. Buchanan RW. Clozapine: efficacy and safety. Schizophr Bull 1995; 21: 579–91.
29. Bushe C, Holt R. Prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in patients with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2004; (Suppl 47): S67–71.
30. Bushe C, Leonard B. Association between atypical antipsychotic agents and type 2 diabetes: review of prospective clinical data. Br J Psychiatry 2004; (Suppl 47): S87–93.
31. Bustillo JR, Lauriello J, Parker K et al. Treatment of weight gain with fluoxetine in olanzapine-treated schizophrenic outpatients. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28: 527–9.
32. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Keck PE Jr, Francis A. Residual catatonic state following neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20: 257–9.
33. Casey DE, Carson WH, Saha AR et al. Switching patients to aripiprazole from other antipsychotic agents: a multicenter randomized study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003; 166: 391–9.
34. Cavazzoni P, Tanaka Y, Roychowdhury SM, Breier A, Allison DB. Nizatidine for prevention of weight gain with olanzapine: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003; 13: 81–5.
35. Centorrino F, Eakin M, Bahk WM et al. Inpatient antipsychotic drug use in 1998, 1993, and 1989. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1932–5.
36. Cheer SM, Wagstaff AJ. Quetiapine. A review of its use in the management of schizophrenia. CNS Drugs 2004; 18: 173–99.
37. Cookson IB. The effects of a 50% reduction of cis(z)-flupenthixol decanoate in chronic schizophrenic patients maintained on a high dose regime. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1987; 2: 141–9.
38. Correa N, Opler LA, Kay SR, Birmaher B. Amantadine in the treatment of neuroendocrine side effects of neuroleptics. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987; 7: 91–5.
39. Correll CU, Leucht S, Kane JM. Lower risk for tardive dyskinesia associated with second-generation antipsychotics: a systematic review of 1-year studies. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 414–25.
40. Csernansky JG, Tacke U, Rusen D, Hollister LE. The effect of benzodiazepines on tardive dyskinesia symptoms. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988; 8: 154–5.
41. Cutler AJ. Sexual dysfunction and antipsychotic treatment. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003; 28(Suppl 1): 69–82.
42. Davis JM, Janicak PG, Sakkas P, Gilmore C, Wang Z. Electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Convuls Ther 1991; 7: 111–20.
43. De Hert M, Dekker J, Wood D, Kahl K, Möller HJ. Cardiovascular disease and diabetes in people with severe mental illness: position statement from the European Psychiatric Association (EPA), supported by the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Euro Psychiatry 2009; in press.
44. Deberdt W, Winokur A, Cavazzoni PA et al. Amantadine for weight gain associated with olanzapine treatment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2005; 15: 13–21.
45. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychiatrie Pu ND. Deutsche G (ed). Praxisleitlinien in der Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie. Band 1, Behandlungsleitlinie Schizophrenia ed. 1998.
46. Dickson RA, Glazer WM. Hyperprolactinemia and male sexual dysfunction. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 125.
47. Dinan T, Peveler R, Holt R. Understanding schizophrenia and diabetes. Hosp Med 2004; 65: 485–8.
48. Dursun SM, Devarajan S. Clozapine weight gain, plus topiramate weight loss. Can J Psychiatry 2000; 45: 198.
49. Elia J, Katz IR, Simpson GM. Teratogenicity of psychotherapeutic medications. Psychopharmacol Bull 1987; 23: 531–86.
50. Emsley R, Berwaerts J, Eerdekens M et al. Efficacy and safety of oral paliperidone extended-release tablets in the treatment of acute schizophrenia: pooled data from three 52-week open-label studies. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2008; 23: 343–56.
51. Fenton WS. Prevalence of spontaneous dyskinesia in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(Suppl 4): 10–4.
52. Fleischhacker WW, Roth SD, Kane JM. The pharmacologic treatment of neuroleptic-induced akathisia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10: 12–21.
53. Floris M, Lejeune J, Deberdt W. Effect of amantadine on weight gain during olanzapine treatment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2001; 11: 181–2.
54. Fortier AH, Grella DK, Nelson BJ, Holaday JW. RESPONSE: re: antiangiogenic activity of prostate-specific antigen. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 345A–346.
55. Gentile S. Clinical utilization of atypical antipsychotics in pregnancy and lactation. Ann Pharmacother 2004; 38: 1265–71.
56. Gerlach J, Rye T, Kristjansen P. Effect of baclofen on tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1978; 56: 145–51.
57. Gilbert PL, Harris MJ, McAdams LA, Jeste DV. Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients. A review of the literature. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52: 173–88.
58. Glassman AH, Bigger JT Jr. Antipsychotic drugs: prolonged QTc interval, torsade de pointes, and sudden death. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1774–82.
59. Glazer WM. Review of incidence studies of tardive dyskinesia associated with typical antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(Suppl 4): 15–20.
60. Goetz CG, Klawans HL. Drug-induced extrapyramidal disorders―a neuropsychiatric interface. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1981; 1: 297–303.
61. Grebb JA. Medication induced movement disorders. In: Kaplan HI, Sadock BJ (eds) Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. New York, Williams & Wilkins, 1995.
62. Green AI, Salomon MS, Brenner MJ, Rawlins K. Treatment of schizophrenia and comorbid substance use disorder. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord 2002; 1: 129–39.
63. Gregorakos L, Thomaides T, Stratouli S, Sakayanni E. The use of clonidine in the management of autonomic overactivity in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Auton Res 2000; 10: 193–6.
64. Gupta S, Masand P. Aripiprazole: review of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in psychiatric disorders. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2004; 16: 155–66.
65. Haddad PM. Antipsychotics and diabetes: review of non-prospective data. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 2004; 47: S80–6.
66. Haddad PM, Anderson IM. Antipsychotic-related QTc prolongation, torsade de pointes and sudden death. Drugs 2002; 62: 1649–71.
67. Harvey PD, Keefe RS. Studies of cognitive change in patients with schizophrenia following novel antipsychotic treatment. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 176–84.
68. Heimberg H, De Vos A, Pipeleers D, Thorens B, Schuit F. Differences in glucose transporter gene expression between rat pancreatic alpha- and beta-cells are correlated to differences in glucose transport but not in glucose utilization. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 8971–5.
69. Hellewell JS. Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) in the treatment of bipolar disorders: a review of efficacy and tolerability. J Affect Disord 2002; 72(Suppl 1): S23–34.
70. Jeste DV. Tardive dyskinesia in older patients. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(Suppl 4): 27–32.
71. Kane JM, Woerner M, Sarantakos S. Depot neuroleptics: a comparative review of standard, intermediate, and low-dose regimens. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 30–3.
72. Kane JM, Woerner M, Weinhold P et al. Epidemiology of tardive dyskinesia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1983; 6: 109–15.
73. Kasper S. Do we need another atypical antipsychotic? Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 18: S146–S152.
74. Keefe RS, Silva SG, Perkins DO, Lieberman JA. The effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs on neurocognitive impairment in schizophrenia: a review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 1999; 25: 201–22.
75. Killian JG, Kerr K, Lawrence C, Celermajer DS. Myocarditis and cardiomyopathy associated with clozapine. Lancet 1999; 354: 1841–5.
76. Kleinberg DL, Davis JM, de Coster R, Van Baelen B, Brecher M. Prolactin levels and adverse events in patients treated with risperidone. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19: 57–61.
77. Konitsiotis S, Pappa S, Mantas C, Mavreas V. Levetiracetam in tardive dyskinesia: an open label study. Mov Disord 2006; 21: 1219–21.
78. Koro CE, Fedder DO, L’Italien GJ et al. Assessment of independent effect of olanzapine and risperidone on risk of diabetes among patients with schizophrenia: population based nested case-control study. BMJ 2002; 325: 243.
79. Kutcher S, Williamson P, MacKenzie S, Marton P, Ehrlich M. Successful clonazepam treatment of neuroleptic-induced akathisia in older adolescents and young adults: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989; 9: 403–6.
80. La Grenade L, Graham D, Trontell A. Myocarditis and cardiomyopathy associated with clozapine use in the United States. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 224–5.
81. Leucht S, Pitschel-Walz G, Abraham D, Kissling W. Efficacy and extrapyramidal side-effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Schizophr Res 1999; 35: 51–68.
82. Lima AR, Weiser KV, Bacaltchuk J, Barnes TR. Anticholinergics for neuroleptic-induced acute akathisia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 1: CD003727.
83. Linnoila M, Viukari M, Kietala O. Effect of sodium valproate on tardive dyskinesia. Br J Psychiatry 1976; 129: 114–9.
84. Littrell KH, Hilligoss NM, Kirshner CD, Petty RG, Johnson CG. The effects of an educational intervention on antipsychotic-induced weight gain. J Nurs Scholarsh 2003; 35: 237–41.
85. Lopez-Mato A, Rovner J, Illa G, Vieitez A, Boullosa O. [Randomized, open label study on the use of ranitidine at different doses for the management of weight gain associated with olanzapine administration]. Vertex 2003; 14: 85–96.
86. Lu ML, Lane HY, Lin SK, Chen KP, Chang WH. Adjunctive fluvoxamine inhibits clozapine-related weight gain and metabolic disturbances. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 766–71.
87. Marder SR, Essock SM, Miller AL et al. Physical health monitoring of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1334–49.
88. Marder SR, Fenton W. Measurement and treatment research to improve cognition in schizophrenia: NIMH MATRICS initiative to support the development of agents for improving cognition in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2004; 72: 5–9.
89. McCreadie RG, Padmavati R, Thara R, Srinivasan TN. Spontaneous dyskinesia and parkinsonism in never–medicated, chronically ill patients with schizophrenia: 18–month follow–up. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 181: 135–7.
90. McCreadie RG, Srinivasan TN, Padmavati R, Thara R. Extrapyramidal symptoms in unmedicated schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2005; 39: 261–6.
91. McCreadie RG, Thara R, Kamath S et al. Abnormal movements in never–medicated Indian patients with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1996; 168: 221–6.
92. McGrath JJ, Soares-Weiser KVS. Neuroleptic reduction and/or cessation and neuroleptics as special treatments for tardive dyskinesia (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2004.
93. McKenna K, Koren G, Tetelbaum M et al. Pregnancy outcome of women using atypical antipsychotic drugs: a prospective comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66: 444–9.
94. Meco G, Fabrizio E, Epifanio A et al. Levetiracetam in tardive dyskinesia. Clin Neuropharmacol 2006; 29: 265–8.
95. Melamed E, Achiron A, Shapira A, Davidovicz S. Persistent and progressive parkinsonism after discontinuation of chronic neuroleptic therapy: an additional tardive syndrome? Clin Neuropharmacol 1991; 14: 273–8.
96. Meltzer HY, Bobo WV, Nuamah IF et al. Efficacy and tolerability of oral paliperidone extended–release tablets in the treatment of acute schizophrenia: pooled data from three 6–week, placebo–controlled studies. J Clin Psychiatry 2008; 69: 817–29.
97. Meltzer HY, McGurk SR. The effects of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine on cognitive function in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1999; 25: 233–55.
98. Menza M, Vreeland B, Minsky S et al. Managing atypical antipsychotic–associated weight gain: 12–month data on a multimodal weight control program. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 471–7.
99. Messer T, Tiltscher C, Schmauss M. [Polypharmacy in the treatment of schizophrenia]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 2006; 74: 377–91.
100. Miller DD. Review and management of clozapine side effects. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(Suppl 8):14–7.
101. Möller HJ. Antidepressive effects of traditional and second generation antipsychotics: a review of the clinical data. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 255: 83–93.
102. Möller HJ, Riedel M, Jager M et al. Short–term treatment with risperidone or haloperidol in first–episode schizophrenia: 8–week results of a randomized controlled trial within the German Research Network on Schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 11(7): 985–97.
103. Möller HJ, von Zerssen D. Depression in schizophrenia 120. In: Burrows GD, Norman TR, Rubinstein G (eds) Handbook of studies on schizophrenia. Amsterdam Oxford New York, Elsevier, 1986: 183–91.
104. Morgenstern H, Glazer WM. Identifying risk factors for tardive dyskinesia among long­term outpatients maintained with neuroleptic medications. Results of the Yale Tardive Dyskinesia Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 723–33.
105. Morrison JA, Cottingham EM, Barton BA. Metformin for weight loss in pediatric patients taking psychotropic drugs. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 655–7.
106. Mota M, Lichiardopol C, Mota E, Panus C, Panus A. Erectile dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Rom J Intern Med 2003; 41: 163–77.
107. Naber D, Karow A. Good tolerability equals good results: the patient′s perspective. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2001; 11(Suppl 4): S391–6.
108. Naber D, Lambert M. Aripiprazole: a new atypical antipsychotic with a different pharmacological mechanism. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004; 28: 1213–9.
109. Nair NP, Yassa R, Ruiz–Navarro J, Schwartz G. Baclofen in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 1978; 135: 1562–3.
110. Nasrallah HA. Atypical antipsychotic–induced metabolic side effects: insights from receptor–binding profiles. Mol Psychiatry 2008; 13: 27–35.
111. Newcomer JW. Antipsychotic medications: metabolic and cardiovascular risk. J Clin Psychiatry 2007; 68: 8–13.
112. Nisijima K, Ishiguro T. Electroconvulsive therapy for the treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome with psychotic symptoms: a report of five cases. J ECT 1999; 15: 158–63.
113. Oehl M, Hummer M, Fleischhacker WW. Compliance with antipsychotic treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000; 102: 83–6.
114. Pelonero AL, Levenson JL, Pandurangi AK. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review. Psychiatr Serv 1998; 49: 1163–72.
115. Poyurovsky M, Isaacs I, Fuchs C et al. Attenuation of olanzapine–induced weight gain with reboxetine in patients with schizophrenia: a double–blind, placebo–controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 297–302.
116. Poyurovsky M, Pashinian A, Gil-Ad I et al. Olanzapine–induced weight gain in patients with first–episode schizophrenia: a double–blind, placebo–controlled study of fluoxetine addition. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1058–60.
117. Poyurovsky M, Tal V, Maayan R et al. The effect of famotidine addition on olanzapine– induced weight gain in first–episode schizophrenia patients: a double–blind placebo– controlled pilot study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2004; 14: 332–6.
118. Pujalte D, Bottai T, Hue B et al. A double–blind comparison of clonazepam and placebo in the treatment of neuroleptic–induced akathisia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1994; 17: 236–42.
119. Purdon SE, J ones BD, Stip E et al. Neuropsychological change in early phase schizophrenia during 12 months of treatment with olanzapine, risperidone, or haloperidol. The Canadian Collaborative Group for research in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57: 249–58.
120. Rabinowitz T, Frankenburg FR, Centorrino F, Kando J. The effect of clozapine on saliva flow rate: a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry 1996; 40: 1132–4.
121. Rohde A, Schaefer C. Psychopharmakotherapie in Schwangerschaft und Stilzeit. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen. 2. Aufl ed. Thieme, Stuttgart, 2006.
122. Rupniak NM, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Acute dystonia induced by neuroleptic drugs. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1986; 88: 403–19.
123. Ryan DH, Espeland MA, Foster GD et al. Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes): design and methods for a clinical trial of weight loss for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Control Clin Trials 2003; 24: 610–28.
124. Sacchetti E, Guarneri L, Bravi D. H(2) antagonist nizatidine may control olanzapine– associated weight gain in schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 167–8.
125. Sachse J, Koller J, Hartter S, Hiemke C. Automated analysis of quetiapine and other antipsychotic drugs in human blood by high performance–liquid chromatography with column–switching and spectrophotometric detection. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 830: 342–8.
126. Sakkas P, Davis JM, Janicak PG, Wang ZY. Drug treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991; 27: 381–4.
127. Sentissi O, Epelbaum J, Olié JP, Poirier MF. Leptin and ghrelin levels in patients with schizophrenia during different antipsychotics treatment: a review. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34(6): 1189–99.
128. Sharpe JK, Hills AP. Atypical antipsychotic weight gain: a major clinical challenge. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2003; 37: 705–9.
129. Shim JC, Shin J, Kelly DL et al. Adjunctive treatment with a dopamine partial agonist, aripiprazole, for antipsychotic–induced hyperprolactinemia: a placebo–controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164: 1404–10.
130. Sletten IW, Sundland D, Pichardo J, Viamontes G. Chlorphentermine and phenmetrazine compared: weight reduction, side effects and psychological change. Mo Med 1967; 64: 927–9.
131. Slone D, Siskind V, Heinonen OP et al. Antenatal exposure to the phenothiazines in relation to congenital malformations, perinatal mortality rate, birth weight, and intelligence quotient score. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1977; 128: 486–8.
132. Soares K, Rathbone J, Deeks J. Gamma-aminobutyric acid agonists for neuroleptic–induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; Issue 3: CD000203.
133. Soares KV, McGrath JJ. Vitamin E for neuroleptic–induced tardive dyskinesia (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2000.
134. Soares-Weiser K, Rathbone J. Calcium channel blockers for neuroleptic–induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; Issue 4: CD000206.
135. Susman VL. Clinical management of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Psychiatr Q 2001; 72: 325–36.
136. Tammenmaa IA, Sailas E, McGrath JJ, Soares-Weiser K, Wahlbeck K. Systematic review of cholinergic drugs for neuroleptic–induced tardive dyskinesia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004; 28: 1099–07.
137. Tandon R, Belmaker RH, Gattaz WF et al. World Psychiatric Association Pharmacopsychiatry Section statement on comparative effectiveness of antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008; 100: 20–38.
138. Thaker GK, Tamminga CA, Alphs LD et al. Brain gamma–aminobutyric acid abnormality in tardive dyskinesia. Reduction in cerebrospinal fluid GABA levels and therapeutic response to GABA agonist treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 522–9.
139. Trixler M, Gati A, Fekete S, Tenyi T. Use of antipsychotics in the management of schizophrenia during pregnancy. Drugs 2005; 65: 1193–06.
140. Tschoner A, Engl J, Laimer M et al. Metabolic side effects of antipsychotic medication. Int J Clin Pract 2007; 61: 1356–70.
141. Umbricht D, Flury H, Bridler R. Cognitive behavior therapy for weight gain. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 971.
142. Velligan DI, Newcomer J, Pultz J et al. Does cognitive function improve with quetiapine in comparison to haloperidol? Schizophr Res 2002; 53: 239–48.
143. Walker P, Soares KVS. Benzodiazepines for neuroleptic–induced tardive dyskinesia (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
144. Wang HC, Hsieh Y. Treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome with subcutaneous apomorphine monotherapy. Mov Disord 2001; 16: 765–7.
145. Warner B, Alphs L, Schaedelin J, Koestler T. Clozapine and sudden death. Lancet 2000; 355: 842.
146. Weber SS, Dufresne RL, Becker RE, Mastrati P. Diazepam in tardive dyskinesia. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1983; 17: 523–7.
147. Weiden PJ, Daniel DG, Simpson G, Romano SJ. Improvement in indices of health status in outpatients with schizophrenia switched to ziprasidone. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 23: 595–600.
148. Werneke U, Taylor D, Sanders TA, Wessely S. Behavioural management of antipsychotic– induced weight gain: a review. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003; 108: 252–9.
149. Wirshing DA, Boyd JA, Meng LR et al.. The effects of novel antipsychotics on glucose and lipid levels. J Clin Psychiatry 2002a; 63: 856–5.
150. Wirshing DA, Boyd JA, Pierre JM et al. Delusions associated with quetiapine–related weight redistribution. J Clin Psychiatry 2002b; 63: 247–8.
151. Wirshing DA, Wirshing WC, Kysar L et al. Novel antipsychotics: comparison of weight gain liabilities. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 358–63.
152. Woods SW, Saksa JR, Baker CB, Cohen SJ, Tek C. Effects of levetiracetam on tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, double–blind, placebo–controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2008; 69: 546–54.
153. Working group for the Canadian Psychiatric Association and the Canadian Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of schizophrenia. Can J Psychiatry 1998; 43(Suppl 2): 25–40.
154. Zimbroff DL, Kane JM, Tamminga CA et al. Controlled, dose–response study of sertindole and haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia. Sertindole Study Group. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 782–91.
155. Zimmermann U, Kraus T, Himmerich H, Schuld A, Pollmacher T. Epidemiology, implications and mechanisms underlying drug–induced weight gain in psychiatric patients. J Psychiatr Res 2003; 37: 193–220.