Education abroad, human capital development, and national competitiveness: China's brain gain strategies

Frontiers of Education in China

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 106-138

  Pan, Su Yan ^a  

^a THE EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

brain gain; development; education abroad; human capital; the State

Indexed keywords

EID: 79952164920     PISSN: 1673341X     EISSN: 16733533     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11516-011-0124-4     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Adams, W. (Ed.). (1968). The brain drain. New York: Macmillan.
2. Altbach, P. G. (1981). The university as center and periphery. Teachers College Record, 82(4), 601-621.
3. Altbach, P. G. (1998). The university as center and periphery. In P. G. Altbach (Ed.), Comparative higher education: Knowledge, the university, and development (pp. 19-36). Greenwich, CT: Ablex.
4. Altbach, P. G. (2002). Centers and peripheries in the academic profession: The special challenges of developing countries. In P. G. Altbach (Ed.), The decline of the Guru: The academic profession in developing and middle-income countries (pp. 1-22). Chestnut Hill, MA: The Boston College Center for International Higher Education.
5. Altbach, P. G. (2004a). Globalisation and the university: Myths and realities in an unequal world. Tertiary Education and Management, 10(1), 3-25.
6. Altbach, P. G. (2004b). Higher education crosses borders. Change, 36(2), 18-24.
7. Altbach, P. G. (2009). Peripheries and centers: research universities in developing countries. Asia Pacific Education Review, 10, 15-27.
8. Amin, S. (1976). Uneven Development: Harvester Press.
9. Arnove, R. F. (1980). Comparative Education and World-systems Analysis. Comparative Education Review, 24(1), 51.
10. Appelbaum, R. P., & Henderson, J. (Eds.). (1992). States and development in the Asian Pacific Rim. London: Sage.
11. Arora, A. (2005). From underdogs to tigers the rise and growth of the software industry in Brazil, China, India, Ireland, and Israel (A. Arora & A. Gambardella, Trans.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12. Ashton, D., Green, F., James, D., & Sung, J. (1999). Education and training for development in East Asia: The political economy of skill formation in East Asian newly industrialised economies. London: Routledge.
13. Atal, Y., & Dall'Oglio, L. (Eds.). (1987). Migration of talent: Causes and consequences of brain drain. Bangkok: UNESCO.
14. Bai, L. M. (2010). Human capital or humane talent? Rethinking the nature of education in China from a comparative historical perspective. Frontirers of Education in China, 5(1), 104-129.
15. Barnett, T. (1991). Sociology and development. London: Routledge.
16. Becker, G. S. (1998). Human capital and poverty. Religion and Liberty, 8(1), 5-7, 11.
17. Blackford, M. G. (2008). The rise of modern business: Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Japan, and China (3rd ed., rev. and updated. ed.). Chapel Hill, N. C.: University of North Carolina Press.
18. Brunet, P. M. (1998, December 10). The brain gain: In global economy, it is good that canadians bring back knowledge from abroad. The Gazette, p. B. 3.
19. Cao, C. (2004a). The brain drain problem in China (Vol. 215). Singapore: National University of Singapore, East Asian Institute.
20. Cao, C. (2004b). China's efforts at turning "brain drain" into "brain gain" (Vol. 216). Singapore: National University of Singapore, East Asian Institute.
21. Carnoy, M. (1974). Education as cultural imperialism. New York: McKay.
22. Castells, M. (1992). Four Asian tigers with a dragon head: A comparative analysis of the state, economy, and society in the Asian Pacific Rim. London: Sage.
23. Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, & State Council. (2000). (chinese Sources) [Opinions on Encouraging High-level Overseas Chinese Talents to Return to Work in China].
24. Cheng, J. C. (2006). (chinese Sources)15 [A review of policy on research fund for returnees from overseas study]. Retrieved December 15, 2006, from http://www. chisa. edu. cn/chisa/article/20060405/20060405014748_1. xml.
25. China Education Daily Reporters. (2008). (chinese Sources) [Study aboard in a new era]. Retrieved December 14, 2008, from http://pic. jyb. cn/world/cglx/200812/t20081214_218154. html.
26. China Review Agency Reporter. (2010). (chinese Sources) [A new generation of returnees help China participate in globalization]. Retrieved from http://chinareviewagency. net/doc/1012/8/4/7/101284732. html?coluid=49&kindid=972&docid=101284732&mdate=0409111952.
27. China View News Reporters. (2006). (chinese Sources)25% [About 25% of Chinese students and academic personnel abroad returned to work in China]. Retrieved December 7, 2006, from http://www. jyb. com. cn/lx/lxsx/t20061207_53482. htm.
28. China Youth Daily Reporter. (2008). (chinese Sources)30: [Riding on the trends to study aboard and return to China]. China Youth Daily. Retrieved December 15, 2008, from http://pic. jyb. cn/world/cglx/200812/t20081215_218269. html.
29. cscse. edu. cn. (2006). (chinese Sources) [Start-up business parks for returned students]. Retrieved December 14, 2006, from http://www. cscse. edu. cn/Portal0/default181. htm.
30. Cummings, W. K. (1997). Human resource development: The J-model. In W. K. Cummings, & P. G. Altbach (Eds.), The challenge of Eastern Asian education: Implications for America (pp. 275-292). New York: State University of New York Press.
31. Davis, M. D. (1997). Game theory: A nontechnical introduction (revised ed.). New York: Dover.
32. Deng, X. P. (1993). (Chinese Sources) [Selected works of Deng Xiaoping] (Vol. 3). Beijing: People's Education Press.
33. Deng, Z. (1991). Brain drain and Chinese overseas education movemen-causes, implications, and policy options. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International.
34. Docquier, F. (2008). Comment on "Higher Education and International Migration in Asia: Brain Circulation" by Mark R. Rosenzweig. In J. Y. Lin, & B. Pleskovic (Eds.), Higher education and development (pp. 85-92). Washington, D. C.: The World Bank.
35. Duke, B. C. (2009). The history of modern Japanese education: Constructing the national school system, 1872-1890. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press.
36. Engardio, P. (1994). Have skills, will Travel-homeward. Newsweek (Special Bonus Issue), 164-165.
37. Englesberg, P. (1995). Reversing China's brain drain: The study abroad policy, 1978-1993. In J. D. Montgomery, & D. A. Rondinelli (Eds.), Great policies: Strategic innovations in Asia and the Pacific basin (pp. 99-122). Westport, CT: Praeger.
38. Fang, H. J., & Zhang, S. J. (Eds.). (2001). (chinese Sources) [Annals of Tsinghua University] (Vol. 1). Beijing: Tsinghua University Press.
39. Fenby, J. (2008). The Penguin history of modern China: The fall and rise of a great power, 1850-2008. London: Allen Lane.
40. Frank, A. G. (1967). Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America. New York: Monthly Review Press.
41. Frank, A. G. (1972). Lumpenbourgeoisie and Lumpendevelopment. New York: Monthly Review Press.
42. Ginsburg, M., Cooper, S., Raghu, R., & Zegarra, H. (1990). National and world-system explanations of educational reform. Comparative Education Review, 34 (4, November), 474-499.
43. Gopinathan, S., & Altbach, P. G. (2005). Rethinking centre-periphery. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 25, November (2), 117-123.
44. Grubel, H. G., & Scott, A. (1977). The brain drain: Determinants, measurement and welfare effects. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
45. Haggard, S. (1990). Pathways from the periphery: The politics of growth in the newly industrializing countries. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
46. Handelman, H. (2006). The challenge of Third World development (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
47. Hart, D. M. (2006). From brain drain to mutual gain. Issues in Science & Technology, Fall, 23(1), 53-62.
48. Hayhoe, R. (1984). Chinese, European and American scholarly values in interaction. London: London Association of Comparative Educationists.
49. Hayhoe, R. (1989). China's universities and the open door. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe.
50. Hayhoe, R. (1996). China's universities, 1895-1995: A century of cultural conflict. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.
51. Hayhoe, R. (2005). Sino-American educational interaction from the microcosm of Fudan's early years. In C. Li (Ed.), Bridging minds across the Pacific: U. S.-China educational exchanges 1978-2003 (pp. 25-47). Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books.
52. Hoogvelt, A. M. M. (1976). The sociology of developing societies. London: Macmillan Press.
53. Hoselitz, B. F. (Ed.). (1952). The progress of underdeveloped areas. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
54. Hu, S. J. (2010, April 11). (chinese Sources) [The promotion of foreign-trained Chinese nationals who returned from overseas studies to take up government office]. Epoch Times. Retrieved from http://www. epochtimes. com/b5/10/4/11/n2873340. htm.
55. Huang, H. (2002). Overseas studies and the rise of foreign capital in China. International Sociology, 17 (1, March), 35-55.
56. Human Recourses Market News Reporter. (2010). (Chinese Sources) [Returnees has established more than 150 returning-student entrepreneurial parks across China]. Retrieved from http://news. sohu. com/20100406/n271328712. shtml.
57. Hvistendahl, M. (2008a). China entices its scholars to come home. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 55(17), A20.
58. Inkeles, A., & Smith, D. H. (1974). Becoming modern. London: Heinemann Education Books.
59. Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China. (2009). (chinese Sources) [Statistics of China's Publications on Science and Technology, 2009]. Beijing: Ministry of Science and Technology.
60. Jalowiecki, B., & Gorzelak, G. J. (2004). Brain drain, brain gain, and mobility: Theories and prospective methods. Higher Education in Europe, 29(3), 299-308.
61. Jiao, G. Z. (1998). (chinese Sources) [Flourishing development of the work of sending students to study abroad]. (chinese Sources) [Higher Education in China], 12, 6-8.
62. Johnson, C. (1982). MITI and the Japanese miracle: The growth of industrial policy, 1925-1975. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
63. Johnson, J. M., & Regets, M. C. (1998). International mobility of scientists and engineers to the United States-brain drain or brain circulation? SRS Issue Brief, June (22), 2-6.
64. Kao, H. C. (1971). Brain drain: A case study of China. Taipei: Mei Ya Publishing House.
65. Kristensen, T. (1968). The brain drain and development planning. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
66. Kissinger, H. A. (1982). Years of upheaval. Boston: Little, Brown.
67. Kornberg, J. F., & Faust, J. R. (2005). China in world politics: Policies, processes, Prospects. Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publisher.
68. Kotz, D. M. (2001). The state, globalization, and phases of capitalist development. In R. Albritton, M. Itoh, R. Westra, & A. Zuege (Eds.), Phases of capitalist development: Booms, crises and globalizations (pp. 93-109). Hampshire and New York: Palgrave Press.
69. Kuptsch, C., & Pang, E. F. (Eds.). (2006). Competing for global talent. Geneva: International Labor Office.
70. Kurlantzick, J. (2007). Charm offensive: How China's soft power is transforming the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
71. Kynge, J. (2006). China shakes the world: The rise of a hungry nation. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
72. Lahiri, A. K. (2009). 5 reasons behind the rise of China.
73. Lampton, D. M., Madancy, J. A., & Williams, K. M. (1986). A relationship restored: Trends in U. S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-1984. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press.
74. Law, W. W. (1996). Fortress state, cultural continuities and economic change: Higher education in mainland China and Taiwan. Comparative Education, 32(3), 377-393.
75. Law, W. W. (2006). Education reform for national competitiveness in a global age: The experience and struggle of China. In K. Mazurek, & M. Winzer (Eds.), Schooling around the world: Debates, challenges and practices (pp. 68-103). Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.
76. Law, W. W. (2009). The developmental state, social change, and education. In R. Cowen, & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International handbook of comparative education (pp. 257-275). London; New York: Springer.
77. Law, W. W., & Pan, S. Y. (2009). Game theory and educational policy: Private education legislation in China. International Journal of Educational Development, 29(3), 227-240.
78. Leftwich, A. (2000). States of development: On the primacy of politics in development. Cambridge: Polity Press.
79. Levy, M. J. (1952). Some sources of the vulnerability of the structures of relatively non-industrialized societies to those of highly industrialized societies. In B. F. Hoselitz (Ed.), The progress of underdeveloped areas. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
80. Li, C. (2003). Educational and professional backgrounds of current provincial leaders. China Leadership Monitor, 8, 1-9.
81. Li, C. (2005). Open doors and open minds. In C. Li (Ed.), Bridging minds across the Pacific: U. S.-China educational exchanges, 1978-2003 (pp. 1-24). Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books.
82. Lin, C. P. (1994). Impressions. China's students abroad: Rates of return. American Enterprise, 5(6), 12-14.
83. Lo, A. (2010, March 18). Quality control. South China Morning Post.
84. Mahroum, S. (2005). The international policies of brain gain: A review. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 17(2), 219-230.
85. Maj, I. L. F. J. (2001). Dragon dance: China's global charm offensive as grand strategies of dalliance and distraction. Pointer: Journal of the Singapore Armed Forces, 27 (3, July-September). Retrieved from http://www. mindef. gov. sg/safti/pointer/back/journals/2001/Vol27_3/3. htm.
86. Manda, G. (2004). Brain drain or brain gain? New African, (435), 74.
87. Mearsheimer, J. J. (2001). The tragedy of great power politics. New York: Norton.
88. Meyer, J. B., & Brown, M. (1999, June 26-July 1). Scientific diasporas: A new approach to the "brain drain" in management of social transformations. Paper presented at the World Conference on Science, hosted by UNESCO - ICSU, Budapest, Hungary.
89. Ministry of Education. (2004). The work of attracting back students and scholars from overseas. Retrieved December 14, 2006, from http://www. moe. edu. cn/english/international_2. htm.
90. Ministry of Education. (2006). (chinese Sources) [Self-financed students studying abroad increased 2. 1% in 2005]. Retrieved May 31, 2007, from http://news. xinhuanet. com/edu/2007-03/12/content_5832367. htm.
91. Ministry of Education. (2007a). 2006 (chinese Sources) [Statistics on overseas study in 2006]. Retrieved May 31, 2007, from http://www. jsj. edu. cn/dongtai/048. html.
92. Ministry of Education. (2007b). (chinese Sources) [Works on education abroad]. Retrieved May 17, 2007, from http://www. moe. edu. cn/.
93. Ministry of Education. (2007c). (chinese Sources) [A Number of Decisions on Further Strengthening the Work of Attracting Back Outstanding Students from Overseas]. Retrieved from http://www. moe. edu. cn/edoas/website18/96/info26196. htm.
94. Ministry of Education. (2008). 2008 (chinese Sources) [Statistics on study abroad in 2008]. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from http://www. moe. edu. cn/edoas/website18/67/info1242963391971267. htm.
95. Ministry of Education. (2010). 2009 (chinese Sources) [Statistics on study abroad in 2009]. Retrieved from http://www. moe. edu. cn/edoas/website18/08/info1268359803230208. htm.
96. Ministry of Education, State Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Personnel, Ministry of Science and Technology, & State-Owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission. (2007). (chinese Sources) [Decisions on Further Strengthening the Work of Improving the Quality of Human Capital with Expertise Urgently Demanded by National Development]. Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://www. moe. edu. cn/edoas/website18/76/info33176. htm.
97. Ministry of Human Resource, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Science and Technology, & Ministry of Finance. (2005). (chinese Sources) [Guidelines for the Work of Attracting Back High-level Overseas Chinese Scholars from Overseas]. Retrieved December 16, 2008, from http://news. xinhuanet. com/zhengfu/2005-04/21/content_2859139. htm.
98. Ministry of Science and Technology. (2001). 2000 (chinese Sources) [Statistics of China's publications on science and technology, 2000].
99. Mok, K. H., & Welch, A. (Eds.). (2003). Globalization and education re-structuring in the Asia Pacific region. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
100. Morrison, D. (1988). The rise of modern China. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
101. Myers, R. G. (1972). Education and emigration: Study abroad and the migration of human resources. New York: David McKay.
102. Namgung, S. U. (2008). The role of returnees in internationalisation at four Korean universities [Electronic Version]. Retrieved September 16, 2010 from http://www. unescobkk. org/fileadmin/user_upload/apeid/workshops/macao08/papers/3-c-2. pdf.
103. Nash, M. J. (1994, November 21). Tigers in the lab: Asian-born, US-trained researchers are headed home to challenge the technological supremacy of the West. Time (International Edition), 48-49.
104. Nye, J. S. (2005, December 29). The Rise of China's Soft Power. Wall Street Journal Asia.
105. Orleans, L. A. (1989). China's changing attitude toward the brain drain and policy toward returning students. China Exchange News, 17 (June), 2-5.
106. Overholt, W. H. (1994). The rise of China: How economic reform is creating a new superpower. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.
107. Pan, S. Y. (2006). Economic globalisation, politico-cultural identity, and university autonomy: The struggle of Tsinghua University in China. Journal of Education Policy, 21(3), 245-266.
108. Pan, S. Y. (2009). University autonomy, the state, and social change in China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
109. Pan, S. Y. (2010). Changes and challenges in the flow of international human capital: China's experience. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(3), 259-288.
110. Parsons, T. (1951). The social system. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press.
111. Parsons, T. (1977). The evolution of societies. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
112. Pedersen, P. (1992). The new China syndrome: Delayed return as a viable alternative to the "brain drain" perspective. Retrieved May 15, 2005, from http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED356708&site=ehost-live.
113. People's Daily. (2010). China's rise most read story of the decade. Retrieved May 4, 2010, from http://english. peopledaily. com. cn/90001/90778/90860/6835434. html.
114. People's Daily Online Reporter. (2007). Innovation-oriented Country. Retrieved May 19, 2010, from http://english. peopledaily. com. cn/90002/92169/92211/6281108. html.
115. People's Daily Reporter. (2004, February 16). Record 20 100 Chinese students return home in 2003. People's Daily. Retrieved May 17, 2005, from http://news. sina. com. cn/o/2004-02-17/09571821697s. shtml.
116. People's Daily Reporter. (2008). (Chinese Sources) [The purpose of setting up models]. Retrieved May 18, 2010, from http://news. xinhuanet. com/comments/2008-01/09/content_7388778. htm.
117. Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (2003). The external control of organization: A resource dependence perspective. In M. J. Handel (Ed.), The sociology of organizations: Classic, contemporary, and critical readings (pp. 233-242). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication, Inc.
118. Portes, A. (1978). Determinants of the brain drain. In C. E. Cortes (Ed.), The Latin American brain drain to the United States. New York: Aron.
119. Postiglione, G. A. (2005). Questioning centre-periphery platforms. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 25 (2, November), 209-225.
120. Qing, L. P. (2001). (chinese Sources) [Difficult issues in China's brain gain policy]. Retrieved March 29, 2008, from http://www. cnbaodao. com/html/1150. htm.
121. Rizvi, F. (2005). Rethinking "brain drain" in the era of globalisation. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 25 (2, November), 175-192.
122. Root, J. (2007). Competing for global talent starts with foreign students. Retrieved February 21, 2009, from http://www. latpro. com/cms/en/careeradvice/competing_for_global_talent_starts_with_foreign_students.
123. Rosenzweig, M. R. (2008). Higher education and international migration in Asia: Brain circulation. In J. Y. Lin, & B. Pleskovic (Eds.), Higher education and development (pp. 59-84). Washington, D. C.: The World Bank.
124. Ross, R. S., & Zhu, F. (Eds.). (2008). China's ascent: Power, security, and the future of international politics. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press.
125. Rostow, W. W. (1985). The stages of economic growth: A non-communist manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
126. Saxenian, A. (2002). Brain circulation. Brookings Review, 20(1), 28-31.
127. Saxenian, A. (2006). The new argonauts: Regional advantage in a global economy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
128. Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. American Economic Review, 51(1), 1-17.
129. Schultz, T. W. (1971). Investment in human capital: The role of education and of research. New York: Free Press.
130. Sharma, S. D. (2009). China and India in the age of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
131. Singh, M. (2005, May 19). Facing India's challenges. Asian Wall Street Journal, p. A. 11. Retrieved from http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb?did=841526261&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=17557&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
132. South China Morning Post Reporter. (2008, December 10). High-flyers find success at home after returning from overseas. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www. scmp. com/portal/site/SCMP/menuitem. 2af62ecb329d3d7733492d9253a0a0a0/?vgnextoid=efa678f8aab1e110VgnVCM100000360a0a0aRCRD&ss=China&s=News.
133. State Statistical Bureau. (2004). China Statistical Yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press.
134. Tomas, P. S. (2008). Comment on "Higher education and international migration in Asia: brain circulation" by Mark R. Rosenzweig. In J. Y. Lin, & B. Pleskovic (Eds.), Higher Education and Development (pp. 93-97). Washington, D. C.: The World Bank.
135. Tsinghua News. (2001). Tsinghua Initiates Chair Professorship. Retrieved October 18, 2001, from http://news. cic. tsinghua. edu. cn/weeknews. php.
136. Tsinghua University. (2001). (chinese Sources) [Scientific pursuit and devotion: Science and technology at Tsinghua University over five decades]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press.
137. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2007). Global education digest 2006: Comparing education statistics across the world. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
138. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2009). Global education digest 2009: Comparing education statistics across the world. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
139. US Qiao Bao Reporter. (2009). (chinese Sources) [Is China dependent on foreign country for education?]. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from http://www. chinapressusa. com/big5/newscenter/2009-01/02/content_180224. htm.
140. Vas-Zoltán, P. (1976). The brain drain: An anomaly of international relations (P. Tamási, Trans.). Leyden: Sijthoff.
141. Wade, R. (1990). Governing the market: Economic theory and the role of government in East Asian industrialization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
142. Wallerstein, I. M. (1974). The modern world-system. New York: Academic Press.
143. Wallerstein, I. M. (1984). The politics of the world-economy: The states, the movements and the civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
144. Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of international politics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
145. Weber, M. (2009). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism: The Talcott Parsons translation interpretations. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
146. Welch, A. (1985). The functionalist tradition and comparative education. Comparative Education, 21(1), 5-19.
147. Welch, A., & Cai, H. C. (in press). Enter the dragon: The internationalisation of Chinese higher education. In J. Ryan (Ed.), China's higher education and internationalisation.
148. Welch, A., & Zhang, Z. (2008). Higher education and global talent flows: Brain drain, overseas Chinese intellectuals, and diasporic knowledge networks. Higher Education Policy, 21(4), 519-537.
149. World Bank. (1993). The East Asian miracle: Economic growth and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press.
150. Xiamen CPC Committee. (2009). (chinese Sources) [Notice on the nomination and honouring of outstanding returnees]. Retrieved May 19, 2010, from http://www. chinalawyer. cc/Law/20100307042551_156436. html.
151. Xinhua News Agency. (2002). (chinese Sources) [The Sixteen CPC Party Congress]. Retrieved May 18, 2010, from http://news. xinhuanet. com/ziliao/2002-01/22/content_629541. htm.
152. Xinhua News Agency. (2003). (chinese Sources) [National Conference for Honouring Outstanding Returnees from Overseas Study]. Retrieved May 18, 2010.
153. Xinhua News Agency. (2007a). 2006 (chinese Sources) [The number of returness increased 20% in 2006] Retrieved June 4, 2007, from http://news. xinhuanet. com/edu/2007-03/06/content_5809589. htm.
154. Xinhua News Agency. (2007b). (chinese Sources) [The Seventeenth CPC Party Congress]. Retrieved May 18, 2010, from http://news. xinhuanet. com/misc/2007-10/21/content_6917382. htm.
155. Yang, R., & Welch, A. (2010). Globalisation, transnational academic mobility and the Chinese knowledge diaspora: An Australian case study. Discourse: Australian Journal of Educational Studies, (Special Issue on Trans-national academic mobility).
156. Yee, A. H. (Ed.). (1995). East Asian higher education: Traditions and transformations. Oxford: Pergamon.
157. Zhong, W. H. (Ed.). (1998). Chnese scholars and the world community. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
158. Zhou, J. (2006). Higher education in China (Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press., Trans.). Singapore: Thomson learning.
159. Zikopoulos, M. (Ed.). (1991). Open Doors, 1990-91. New York: Institute of International Education.
160. Zweig, D. (2006a). Competing for Talent: China's strategies to reverse the brain drain. International Labour Review, 145(1-2), 65-89.
161. Zweig, D. (2006b). "Is China a magnet for global talent?" Paper presented at the 8th National Metropolis Conference, "Immigration and Canada's Place in a Changing World.".
162. Zweig, D., & Rosen, S. (2003). How China trained a new generation abroad. Retrieved May 5, 2009, from http://www. scidev. net/en/features/how-china-trained-a-new-generation-abroad. html.