Biomedical question answering: A survey

Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine

Volumn 99, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 1-24

  Athenikos, Sofia J ^a   Han, Hyoil ^b  

^a Drexel University   (United States)

^b LeMoyne Owen College   (United States)

Author keywords

Answer reason extraction; Biomedical question answering; Semantic information extraction

Indexed keywords

BIOMEDICAL INFORMATICS; BIOMEDICAL INFORMATION; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS; CONFLICTING EVIDENCE; CRITICAL AREA; DOMAIN SPECIFIC; INTEGRATED UTILIZATION; KNOWLEDGE BASE; NATURAL LANGUAGES; ONLINE SEARCH; QA SYSTEM; QUESTION ANALYSIS; QUESTION ANSWERING; REASONING MECHANISM; RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT; SEMANTIC INFORMATION; SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE; STATE OF THE ART;

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; KNOWLEDGE BASED SYSTEMS; RESEARCH; SEMANTICS; SURVEYS;

NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING SYSTEMS;

ARTICLE; BIOINFORMATICS; BIOMEDICAL QUESTION ANSWERING; CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; INFORMATION PROCESSING; KNOWLEDGE BASE; SEMANTICS; FACTUAL DATABASE; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; MEDICAL INFORMATICS; MEDICAL RESEARCH; METHODOLOGY; REVIEW;

BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; DATABASES, FACTUAL; INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL; MEDICAL INFORMATICS; SEMANTICS;

EID: 79952117288     PISSN: 01692607     EISSN: 18727565     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2009.10.003     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. TREC (Text REtrieval Conference), . http://trec.nist.gov/.
2. Vorhees E.M. The TREC question answering track. Nat. Lang. Eng. 2001, 7:361-378.
3. Hirschman L., Gaizauskas R. Natural language question answering: the view from here. Nat. Lang. Eng. 2001, 7:275-300.
4. Vallin A., Magnini B., Giampiccolo D., Aunimo L., Ayache C., Osenova P., Penas A., de Rijke M., Sacaleanu B., Santos D., Sutcliffe R. Overview of the CLEF 2005 multilingual question answering track. Proceedings of the Third Cross Language Evaluation Forum (CLEF 2005) 2005.
5. Kando N. Overview of the fifth NTCIR workshop. Proceedings of the Fifth NTCIR Workshop Meeting Evaluation of Information Access Technologies: Information Retrieval, Question Answering and Cross-Lingual Information Access 2005.
6. Mollá D., Vicedo J.L. Question answering in restricted domains: an overview. Comput. Linguist. 2007, 33:41-61.
7. Lopez V., Motta E., Uren V., Sabou M. State of the art on semantic question answering: a literature review. Technical Report kmi-07-03, Knowledge Media Institute 2007, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK.
8. Miller G.A., WordNet: A lexical database for English. Commun. ACM 1995, 38:39-41.
9. Fellbaum C.E. WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database 1998, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
10. Vicedo J.L., Ferrández A. A semantic approach to question answering systems. Proceedings of the Ninth Text REtrieval Conference (TREC-9) 2000, 511-516.
11. Alfonseca E., De Boni M., Jara-Valencia J.-L., Manandhar S. A prototype question answering system using syntactic and semantic information for answer retrieval. Proceedings of the Tenth Text REtrieval Conference (TREC 2001) 2001, 680-685.
12. Hovy E., Gerber L., Hermjakob U., Lin C.-Y., Ravichandran D. Toward semantics-based answer pinpointing. Proceedings of the First Human Language Tech. Conference (HLT-2001) 2001, 1-7.
13. Fleischman M., Hovy E., Echihabi A. Offline strategies for online question answering: answering questions before they are asked. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting Assoc. Comp. Ling. (ACL 2003) 2003, 1-7.
14. Ferrés D., Kanaan S., González E., Ageno A., Rodríguez H., Surdeanu M., Turmo J. TALP-QA system at TREC 2004: structural and hierarchical relaxing of semantic constraints. Proceedings of the 13th Text REtrieval Conference (TREC 2004) 2004.
15. Vossen P. EuroWordNet: a multilingual database for information retrieval. Proceedings of the DELOS Workshop Cross-Language Information Retrieval 1997.
16. Punyakanok V., Roth D., Yih W-.T. Natural language inference via dependency tree mapping: an application to question answering. Comput. Linguist. 2004, 6:1-10.
17. Sun R., Jiang J., Tan Y.F., Cui H., Chua T.-S., Kan M.-Y. Using syntactic and semantic relation analysis in question answering. Proceedings of the 14th Text REtrieval Conference (TREC 2005) 2005.
18. Harabagiu S., Miller G.A., Moldovan D.I. WordNet2-a morphologically and semantically enhanced resource. Proceedings of the ACL-SIGLEX99: Standardizing Lexical Resources 1999, 1-8.
19. Baker C.F., Fillmore C.J., Lowe J.B. The Berkeley FrameNet Project. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of ACL and 17th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING-ACL'98) 1998, 86-90.
20. Fillmore C.J., Johnson C.R., Petruck M.R. Background to FrameNet. Int. J. Lexicogr. 2003, 16:235-250.
21. Kingsbury P., Palmer M., Marcus M. Adding semantic annotation to the Penn TreeBank. Proceedings of the 2nd Human Language Technology Conference (HLT-2002) 2002.
22. Palmer M., Gildea D., Kingsbury P. The Proposition Bank: an annotated corpus of semantic roles. Comput. Linguist. 2005, 31:71-106.
23. Lin D., Pantel P. Discovery of inference rules for question answering. Nat. Lang. Eng. 2001, 7:343-360.
24. Girju R. Automatic detection of causal relations for question answering. Proceedings of the ACL 2003 Workshop Multilingual Summarization and Question Answering 2003, 76-83.
25. Beale S., Lavoie B., McShane M., Nirenburg S., Korelsky T. Question answering using ontological semantics. Proceedings of the ACL-2004 Workshop Text Meaning and Interpretation 2004, 41-48.
26. Harabagiu S., Moldovan D., Paşca M., Surdeanu M., Mihalcea R., Gîrju R., Rus V., Lǎcǎtuşu F., Morǎrescu P., Bunescu R. Answering complex, list and context questions with LCC's question-answering server. Proceedings of the Tenth Text REtrieval Conference (TREC 2001) 2001, 355-361.
27. Narayanan S., Harabagiu S. Answering questions using advanced semantics and probabilistic inference. Proceedings of the HLT-NAACL 2004 Workshop Pragmatics of Question Answering 2004, 10-16. ACL, Boston, USA.
28. Narayanan S., Harabagiu S. Question answering based on semantic structures. Proceedings of the 20th Int'l Conf. Comp. Ling. (COLING 2004) 2004, Morgan Kaufman, Geneva, Switzerland.
29. Narayanan S. Knowledge-based Action Representations for Metaphor and Aspect (KARMA) 1997, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California at Berkeley.
30. Murphy K. Dynamic Bayesian Networks: Representation, Inference, and Learning 2002, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California at Berkeley.
31. Sinha S., Narayahan S. Model-based answer selection. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 42-46. AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
32. Narayanan S. Reasoning about actions in narrative understanding. Proceedings of the 16th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI'99) 1999, 350-357.
33. Narayanan S., McIlraith S. Analysis and simulation of web services. Comput. Netw. 2003, 42:675-693.
34. Harabagiu S., Bejan C.A. Question answering based on temporal inference. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 27-34. AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
35. Shen D., Lapata M. Using semantic roles to improve question answering. Proceedings of the Conference Empirical Methods Nat. Lang. Proc. and Conf. Nat. Lang. Learning Joint Meeting (EMNLP-CoNLL 2007) 2007, 12-21.
36. Gildea D., Jurafsky D. Automatic labeling of semantic roles. Computat. Linguist. 2002, 28:245-288.
37. Katz B., Borchardt G., Felshin S. Syntactic and semantic decomposition strategies for question answering from multiple resources. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 35-41. AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
38. Harabagiu S.M., Paşca M.A., Maiorano S.J. Experiments with open-domain textual question answering. Proceedings of the 16th Int'l Conf. Comp. Ling. (COLING 2000) 2000, 292-298.
39. Moldovan D., Rus B. Logic form transformations of WordNet and its applicability to question answering. Proceedings of the 39th Ann. Meeting Assoc. Comp. Ling. (ACL 2001) 2001, 402-409.
40. Moldovan D., Clark C., Harabagiu S., Maiorano S. COGEX: a logic prover for question answering. Proceedings of the 2003 Human Lang. Tech. and North Am. Chap. Assoc. Comp. Ling. Joint Conf. (HLT-NAACL 2003) 2003, 87-93.
41. Moldovan D., Clark C., Harabagiu S., Hodges D. COGEX: a semantically and contextually enriched logic prover for question answering. J Appl. Logic 2007, 5:49-69.
42. Mollá D., Schwitter R., Hess M., Fournier R. ExtrAns, an answer extraction system. TAL 2000, 41:495-522.
43. Mollá D. Towards semantic-based overlap measures for question answering. Proceedings of the First Australasian Language Technology Workshop (ALTW'03) 2003.
44. Benamara F. Cooperative question answering in restricted domains: the WEBCOOP experiment. Proceedings of the ACL-2004 Workshop Question Answering in Restricted Domains 2004, 31-38.
45. Waldinger R.J., Appelt D.E., Dungan J.L., Fry J., Hobbs J.R., Israel D.J., Jarvis P., Martin D., Riehemann S., Stickel M.E., Tyson M. Deductive question answering from multiple resources. New Directions in Question Answering 2004, 253-262. AAAI Press. M.T. Maybury (Ed.).
46. Stickel M.E., Waldinger R.J., Chaudhri V.K. A guide to SNARK, Technical Report 2000, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA.
47. Curtis J., Matthews G., Baxter D. On the effective use of Cyc in a question answering system. Proceedings of the IJCAI'05 Workshop Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions (KRAQ'05) 2005, 61-70.
48. Cyc, . http://www.cyc.com/.
49. Clark C., Hodges D., Stephan J., Moldovan D. Moving QA towards reading comprehension using context and default reasoning. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 6-12. AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
50. Tari L., Baral C. Using AnsProlog with Link Grammar and WordNet for QA with deep reasoning. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 13-21. AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
51. Sleator D.D., Temperley D. Parsing English with Link Grammar. Proceedings of the Third Int'l Workshop on Parsing Technologies 1993.
52. Baral C., Gelfond G., Gelfond M., Scherl R.B. Textual inference by combining Multiple Logic Programming paradigms. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 1-5. AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
53. Bobrow D., Condoravdi D., Crouch R., Kaplan R., Karttunen L., King T., dePaiva V., Zaenen A. A basic logic for textual Davidsonian inference. Proceedings of the AAAI 2005 Workshop Inference for Textual Question Answering 2005, 47-51. AAAI Press.
54. Yu H., Sable C. Being Erlang Shen: identifying answerable questions. Proceedings of the IJCAI'05 Workshop Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions (KRAQ'05) 2005, 6-14.
55. Rinaldi F., Dowdall J., Schneider G., Persidis A. Answering questions in the genomics domain. Proceedings of the ACL-2004 Workshop Question Answering in Restricted Domains 2005.
56. Zweigenbaum P. Question answering in biomedicine. Proceedings of the EACL 2003 Workshop Natural Language Processing for Question Answering 2003, 1-4.
57. Niu Y., Hirst G. Analysis of semantic classes in medical text for question answering. Proceedings of the ACL-2004 Workshop Question Answering in Restricted Domains 2004.
58. Zweigenbaum P. Knowledge and reasoning for medical question-answering. Proceedings of the ACL-IJCNLP 2009 Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions 2009, 1-2.
59. Kim J.D., Ohta T., Tateisi Y., Tsujii J. GENIA Corpus-a semantically annotated corpus for bio-textmining. Bioinformatics 2003, 19:i180-i182.
60. Rector A.L., Bechhover S., Goble C.A., Horrocks I., Nolan W.A., Solomon W.D. The GRAIL concept modelling language for medical terminology. Art. Intell. Med. 1997, 9:139-171.
61. Aronson A. Effective mapping of biomedical text to the UMLS Metathesaurus: The MetaMap Program. Proceedings of the AMIA 2001 Symposium 2001, 17-21.
62. Rindflesch T.C., Fiszman M. The interaction of domain knowledge and linguistic structure in natural language processing: interpreting hypernymic propositions in biomedical text. J. Biomed. Inform. 2003, 36:462-477.
63. Ely J.W., Osheroff J.A., Ebell M.H., Bergus G.R., Levy B.T., Chamliss M.L., Evans E.R. Analysis of questions asked by family doctors regarding patient care. Br. Med. J. 1999, 319:358-361.
64. Ely J.W., Osheroff J.A., Ferguson K.J., Chambliss M.L., Vinson D.C., Moore J.L. Lifelong self-directed learning using a computer database of clinical questions. J. Fam. Pract. 1997, 45:382-388.
65. D'Alessandro D.M., Kreiter C.D., Peterson M.W. An evaluation of information-seeking behaviors of general pediatricians. Pediatrics 2004, 113:64-69.
66. Sackett D.L., Rosenberg W.M.C., Gray J.A.M., Haynes R.B., Richardson W.S. Evidence-based medicine: what it is and what it isnt. Br. Med. J. 1996, 312:71-72.
67. Sackett D.L., Strauss S., Richardson W., Rosenberg W., Haynes R. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM 2000, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, UK; New York, USA. 2nd ed.
68. Alper B., Stevermer J., White D., Ewigman B. Answering family physicians' clinical questions using electronic medical databases. J. Fam. Pract. 2001, 50:960-965.
69. Alper B.S., White D.S., Ge B. Physicians answer more clinical questions and change clinical decisions more often with synthesized evidence: a randomized trial in primary care. Ann. Fam. Med. 2005, 3:507-513.
70. L. Berkowitz, Review and evaluation of clinical reference tools for physicians, White Paper, 2002, . http://www.uptodate.com/whitepaper/UTD_WP_Internet_Tools.pdf.
71. Cimino J.J., Li J., Graham M., Currie L.M., Allen M., Bakken S., Patel V.L. Use of online resources while using a clinical information system. Proceedings of the AMIA 2003 Symposium 2003, 175-179.
72. Hersh W.R., Crabtree M.K., Hickman D.H., Sacherek L., Friedman C.P., Tidmarsh P., Mosbaek C., Kraemer D. Factors associated with success in searching MEDLINE and applying evidence to answer clinical questions. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 2002, 9:283-293.
73. Jacquemart P., Zweigenbaum P. Towards a medical question-answering system: a feasibility study. Stud. Health. Technol. Inform. 2003, 95:463-468.
74. Koonce T.Y., Giuse N.B., Todd P. Evidence-based databases versus primary medical literature: an in-house investigation on their optimal use. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 2004, 92:407-411.
75. Magrabi F., Westbrook J.I., Coiera E.W., Gosling A.S. Clinicians' assessments of the usefulness of online evidence to answer clinical questions. MEDINFO 2004. 2004, 297-300. IOS Press, Amsterdam. M. Fieschi (Ed.).
76. Patel M.R., Schardt C.M., Sanders L.L., Keitz S.A. Randomized trial for answers to clinical questions: evaluating a pre-appraised versus a MEDLINE search protocol. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 2006, 94:382-386.
77. Westbrook J.I., Gosing A.S., Coiera E. Do clinicians use online evidence to support patient care? A study of 55,000 clinicians. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 2004, 11:113-120.
78. Westbrook J.I., Coiera E.W., Gosling A.S. Do online information retrieval systems help experienced clinicians answer clinical questions?. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 2005, 12:315-321.
79. Ely J.W., Osheroff J.A., Ebell M.H., Chambliss M.L., Vinson D.C., Stevermer J.J., Pifer E.A. Obstacles to answering Doctors' questions about patient care with evidence: qualitative study. Br. Med. J. 2002, 324:710-716.
80. Ely J.W., Osheroff J.A., Chambliss M.L., Ebell M.H., Rosenbaum M.E. Answering physicians' clinical questions: obstacles and potential solutions. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 2005, 12:217-224.
81. Armstrong E.C. The well-built clinical question: the key to finding the best evidence efficiently. W. Med. J. 1999, 98:25-28.
82. Richardson W.S., Wilson M.C., Nishikawa J., Hayward R.S. The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions. ACP J. Club 1995, 123:A12-13.
83. Schardt C., Adams M.B., Owens T., Keitz S., Fontelo P. Utilization of the PICO framework to improve searching PubMed for clinical questions. BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak. 2007, 7(16).
84. Bergus G.R., Randall C.S., Sinift S.D., Rosenthal D.M. Does the structure of clinical questions affect the outcome of curbside consultations with specialty colleagues?. Arch. Fam. Med. 2000, 9:541-547.
85. Demner-Fushman D., Hauser S.E., Humphrey S.M., Ford G.M., Jacobs J.L., Thoma G.R. MEDLINE as a source of just-in-time answers to clinical questions. Proceedings of the AMIA 2006 Symposium 2006, 190-194.
86. Ely J.W., Osheroff J.A., Gorman P.N., Ebell M.H., Chambliss M.L., Pifer E.A., Stavri P.Z. A taxonomy of generic clinical questions: classification study. Br. Med. J. 2000, 321:429-432.
87. Huang X., Lin J., Demner-Fushman D. Evaluation of PICO as a knowledge representation for clinical questions. Proceedings of the AMIA 2006 Symposium 2006, 359-363.
88. Yu H., Sable C., Zhu H.R. Classifying Medical Questions based on an Evidence Taxonomy. Proceedings of the AAAI-05 Workshop Question Answering in Restricted Domains 2005.
89. Yu H., Cao Y. Automatically extracting information needs from ad hoc clinical questions. Proceedings of the AMIA 2008 Symposium 2008, 96-100.
90. Kobayashi T., Shyu C.-R. Representing clinical questions by semantic type for better classification. Proceedings of the AMIA 2006 Symposium 2006, 987.
91. Slaughter L.A., Soergel D., Rindflesch T.C. Semantic representation of consumer questions and physician answers. Int. J. Med. Inform. 2006, 75:513-529.
92. Cao Y.-G., Ely J., Antieau L., Yu H. Evaluation of the clinical question answering presentation. Proceedings of the Workshop on BioNLP 2009, 171-178. ACL, Boulder, Colorado.
93. Lee M., Cimino J., Zhu H.R., Sable C., Shanker V., Ely J., Yu H. Beyond information retrieval-medical question answering. Proceedings of the AMIA 2006 Symposium 2006, 469-473.
94. Yu H., Lee M., Kaufman D., Ely J., Osheroff J.A., Hripscak G., Cimino J. Development, implementation, and a cognitive evaluation of a definitional question answering system for physicians. J. Biomed. Inform. 2007, 40:236-261.
95. Sang E.T.K., Bouma G., de Rijke M. Developing offline strategies for answering medical questions. Proceedings of the AAAI-05 Workshop Question Answering in Restricted Domains 2005.
96. Lin J., Karakos D., Demner-Fushman D., Khudanpur S. Generative content models for structural analysis of medical abstracts. Proceedings of the HLT-NAACL 2006 Workshop on Linking Natural Language Processing and Biology: Towards Deeper Biological Literature Analysis (BioNLP'06) 2006, 65-72.
97. McKnight L., Srinivasan P. Categorization of sentence types in medical abstracts. Proceedings of the AMIA 2003 Symposium 2003, 440-444.
98. Light M., Qiu X.Y., Srinivasan P. The language of bioscience: facts, speculations, and statements in between. Proceedings of the HLT-NAACL 2004 Workshop on Linking Biological Literature, Ontologies and Databases (BioLink 2004) 2004, 17-24.
99. Lee M., Wang W., Yu H. Exploring supervised and unsupervised approaches to detect topics in biomedical text. BMC Bioinform. 2006, 7:140.
100. Radev D., Jing H., Budzikowska M. Centroid-based summarization of multiple documents: sentence extraction utility-based evaluation, and user studies. Proceedings of the ANLP/NAACL Workshop on Summarization 2000.
101. Yu H., Wei Y. The semantics of a definiendum constrains both the lexical semantics and the lexicosyntactic patterns in the definiens. Proceedings of the HLT-NAACL 2006 Workshop on Linking Natural Language Processing and Biology: Towards Deeper Biological Literature Analysis (BioNLP'06) 2006.
102. Yu H., Kaufman D. A cognitive evaluation of four online search engines for answering definitional questions posed by physicians. Pac. Symp. Biocomput. 2007, 12:328-339.
103. T. Delbecque, P. Jacquemart, P. Zweigenbaum, Indexing UMLS semantic types for medical question-answering, in: R. Engelbrecht (Ed.), Connecting Medical Informatics and Bio-Informatics (ENMI 2005), 2005, pp. 805-810.
104. Niu Y., Hirst G., McArthur G., Rodriguez-Gianolli P. Answering clinical questions with role identification. Proceedings of the ACL-2003 Workshop Natural Language Processing in Biomedicine 2003, 73-80.
105. Niu Y., Zhu X., Li J., Hirst G. Analysis of polarity information in medical text. Proceedings of the AMIA 2005 Symposium 2005, 570-574. AMIA.
106. Niu Y., Zhu X., Hirst G. Using outcome polarity in sentence extraction for medical question-answering. Proceedings of the AMIA 2006 Symposium 2006, 599-603. AMIA.
107. Demner-Fushman D., Lin J. Knowledge extraction for clinical question answering: preliminary results. Proceedings of the AAAI-05 Workshop Question Answering in Restricted Domains 2005, AAAI Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
108. Demner-Fushman D., Few B., Hauser S.E., Thoma G. Automatically identifying health outcome information in MEDLINE records. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 2006, 13:52-60.
109. Demner-Fushman D., Lin J. Answer extraction semantic clustering, and extractive summarization for clinical question answering. Proceedings of the 21st Int'l Conf. Comp. Ling. and 44th Ann. Meeting Assoc. Comp. Ling. (COLING-ACL 2006) 2006, 841-848.
110. Demner-Fushman D., Lin J. Answering clinical questions with knowledge-based and statistical techniques. Comput. Linguist. 2007, 33:63-103.
111. Lin J., Demner-Fushman D. The role of knowledge in conceptual retrieval: a study in the domain of clinical medicine. Proceedings of the 29th Ann. Int'l ACM SIGIR Conf. (SIGIR'06) 2006, 99-106.
112. Weiming W., Hu D., Feng M., Wenyin L. Automatic clinical question answering based on UMLS relations. 3rd Int'l Conf. Semantics, Knowledge and Grid (SKG 2007), accepted Xi'An 2007.
113. Barton S. Clinical Evidence 2002, BMJ Publishing Group, London.
114. Ball C.M., Phillips R.S. Evidence-based on Call: Acute Medicine 2001, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, UK.
115. Barbosa D., Barta A., Mendelzon A., Mihaila G., Rizzolo F., Rodriguez-Gianolli P. ToX-The Toronto XML Engine. Proceedings of the Int'l Workshop on Information Integration on the Web 2001.
116. Carbonell J., Goldstein J. The use of MMR diversity based reranking for reordering documents and producing summaries. Proceedings of the 21st Ann. Int. ACM SIGIR Conf. on Research and Development in Information Retrieval 1998, 335-336.
117. Lin C.Y. ROUGE: a package for automatic evaluation of summaries. Proceedings of the ACL-2004 Workshop on Text Summarization Branches Out 2004, 74-81.
118. Ebell M.H., Weiss B.D., Woolf S.H., Susman J., Ewigman B., Bowman M. Strength of recommendation taxonomy (SORT): a patient-centered approach to grading evidence in the medical literature. J. Am. Brd. Fam. Pract. 2004, 17:59-67.
119. McCray A.T., Burgun A., Bodenreider O. Aggregating UMLS semantic types for reducing conceptual complexity. Proceedings of the 10th World Congress Med. Inform. (MEDINFO 2001) 2001, 216-220.
120. J. Fam. Pract., . http://www.jfponline.com/.
121. Parkhurst Exchange, . http://www.parkhurstexchange.com/.
122. Zhao Y., Karypis G. Evaluation of hierarchical clustering algorithms for document datasets. Proceedings of the 11th Int'l ACM Conf. on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM'02) 2002.
123. Terol R.M., Martínez-Barco P., Palomar M. A knowledge based method for the medical question answering problem. Comput. Biol. Med. 2007, 27:1511-1521.
124. Lin D. Dependency-based evaluation of MINIPAR. Proceedings of the Workshop on Evaluation of Parsing Systems 1998.
125. Yu H., Lee M. Accessing bioscience images from abstract sentences. Bioinformatics 2006, 22:e547-e556.
126. Yu H. Towards answering biological questions with experimental evidence: automatically identifying text that summarize image content in full-text articles. Proceedings of the AMIA 2006 Symposium 2006, 834-838.
127. SummaryPlus, . http://www.info.sciencedirect.com/using/display/summaryplus/.
128. Takahashi K., Koike A., Takagi T. Question answering system in biomedical domain. Proceedings of the Genome Informatics 2004 (GIW 2004) 2004, 161-162.
129. Lin R.T.K., Chiu J.L.-T., Dai H.-J., Day M.-Y., Tsai R.T.-H., Hsu W.L. Biological question answering with syntactic and semantic feature matching and an improved mean reciprocal ranking measurement. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Conference on Information Reuse and Integration (IEEE IRI 2008) 2008, 184-189.
130. Shi Z., Melli G., Wang Y., Liu Y., Gu B., Kashani M., Sarkar A., Popowich F. Question answering summarization of multiple biomedical documents. Proceedings of the 20th Canadian Conference on Artificial Intelligence (CanAI'07) 2007.
131. Koike A., Takagi T. Gene/protein/family name recognition in biomedical literature. Proceeding of the HLT-NAACL 2004 Workshop on Linking Biological Literature, Ontologies and Databases: Tools for Users (BioLink 2004) 2004, 9-16.
132. Boguraev B., Briscoe T., Carroll J., Carter D., Grover C. The derivation of a grammatically indexed lexicon from the Longman dictionary of contemporary English. Proceedings of the 25th Conf. Assoc. Comp. Ling. (ACL 1987) 1987, 193-200.
133. Tsuruoka Y. Bidirectional inference with the easiest-first strategy for tagging sequence data. Proceeding of the Conference on Human Language Technology and Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (HLT-EMNLP 2005) 2005, 467-474.
134. Melli G., Wang Y., Liu Y., Kashani M., Shi Z., Gu B., Sarkar A., Popowich F. Description of Squash, the SFU question answering summary handler for the DUC-2005 summarization task. Proceedings of the 5th Document Understanding Conference (DUC 2005) 2005, 103-110.
135. Kontos J., Lekakis J., Malagardi I., Peros J. Grammars for question answering systems based on intelligent text mining in biomedicine. Proceedings of the 7th Hellenic European Conf. Computer Mathematics and Its Applications (HERCMA 2005) 2005.
136. Kontos J., Malagardi I., Peros J. Question answering and rhetoric analysis of biomedical texts in the AROMA system. Proceedings of the 7th Hellenic European Conf. Computer Mathematics and Its Applications (HERCMA 2005) 2005.
137. Kontos J. ARISTA: knowledge engineering with scientific texts. Inform. Softw. Technol. 1992, 34:611-616.
138. Finch S., Mikheev A. A workbench for finding structures in texts. Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing 1997.
139. Schneider G. Extracting and using trace-free functional dependencies from the Penn Treebank to reduce parsing complexity. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop Treebanks and Linguistic Theories (TLT 2003) 2003, 14-15.
140. Athenikos S.J., Han H., Brooks A.D. Semantic analysis and classification of medical questions for a logic-based medical question-answering system. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Biomedical and Health Informatics (BHI 2008) in conjunction with 2008 IEEE Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (IEEE BIBM 2008) 2008, 111-112.
141. Athenikos S.J., Han H., Brooks A.D. A framework of logic-based question-answering system for the medical domain (LOQAS-Med). Proceedings of the 24th Annual ACM Symposium on Applied Computing (ACM SAC'09) 2009, 847-851.
142. Baader F., Calvanese D., McGuinness D.L., Nardi D., Patel-Schneider P.F. The Description Logic Handbook: Theory, Implementation and Applications 2003, Cambridge University Press, West Nyack, NY.