Universalism and equal sovereignty as contested myths of international law in the sino-western encounter

Journal of the History of International Law

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 75-116

  Chen, Li ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79751478276     PISSN: 1388199X     EISSN: 15718050     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157180511X552054     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (226)

1. See, e.g., Hosea Ballou Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 3 vols. (New York: Longman, 1910)
2. Earl H. Pritchard, The Crucial Years of Early Anglo-Chinese Relations, 1750-1800 (New York: Routledge, 2000 [1936])
3. John K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953)
4. Alain Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire, trans. Jon Rothschild (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992)
5. Harry G. Gelber, Opium, Soldiers and Evangelicals: Britain's 1840-42 War with China, and Its Aftermath (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
6. Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World.: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France, C.1500-C.1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 8-10.
7. Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World.: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France, C.1500-C.1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995, Ibid., 19-23 (for the quotations).
8. Ibid., 24. See Robert A. Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 15-29 (on the changing relationship between empire and church and papal claims to universal power)
9. James Muldoon, Empire and Order: The Concept of Empire, 800-1800 (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 1999), 64-86 (on the papal conception of empire).
10. Muldoon, Empire and Order, 87
11. Pagden, Lords of All the World, 23-27, 30-31
12. Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal Thought, 20-34.
13. James Muldoon, ed., The Expansion of Europe: The First Phase (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1977), 191-92.
14. Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal Thought, 13-41 (also on earlier Christian theological jurisprudence).
15. Reprinted in Frances Gardiner Davenport, ed., European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1917), 23, 12.
16. Reprinted in Frances Gardiner Davenport, ed., European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1917), 23 , Ibid., 22, 24; also 34 and 9.
17. Reprinted in Frances Gardiner Davenport, ed., European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1917), 23, Ibid., 9.
18. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648, 1917, 23, For reprints of the four papal bulls in 1493, see ibid., 61-63, 67-70, 75-78 (Inter caetera II), 82-83. For the Treaty of Tordesillas
19. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648, 1917, 23, see ibid., 94-100, and 95-96 (about the boundary line)
20. Pagden, Lords of All the World, 64, also 33-36, 102.
21. Francesco Tarducci, John and Sebastian Cabot: Biographical Notice with Documents, trans. Henry F. Brownson (Whitefish, NY: Kessinger Publishing, 2007), 65-66, 320-22 (reprinting the Letters Patent).
22. Pagden, Lords of All the World, 64, 35, also 33-34 (for the French practices).
23. Tarducci, John and Sebastian Cabot, 70, 384 (Robert Thorne's letter to Henry VIII in 1527).
24. Pagden, Lords of All the World, 9 (for the quotation).
25. Franciscus de Victoria, De Indies et de Ivre Belli Relectiones, Being Parts of Relectiones Theologicae XII, trans. John Pawley Bate (Washington, D.C.: The Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1917 [1557]), 120-58.
26. Hugo Grotius, The Free Sea, ed. David Armitage (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2004 [1609])
27. Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, ed. Richard Tuck (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2005 [1625]).
28. For some recent studies of these leading publicists, see Charles H. Alexandrowicz, An Introduction to the History of the Law of Nations in the East Indies (16th, 17th and 18th Centuries) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), 41-80
29. Pagden, Lords of All the World, 46-61
30. Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 79-126
31. Martine Julia van Ittersum, Profit and Principle: Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies (1595-1615) (Boston: Brill, 2006).
32. On earlier Portuguese factoria, see Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal Thought, 86.
33. A Brief Account of the Priviledges and Immunities Granted by the French King to the East- India Company, & c. of France (London: Ambrose Isted, 1671), 4 (emphasis added).
34. See John Shaw, Charters Relating to the East India Company from 1600 to 1761 (Madras: R. Hill, 1887), 7-15 (for the 1600 EIC charter);
35. Glenn J. Ames, The Global Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700 (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008), 102-103 (for the VOC charter);
36. Antony Wild, The East India Company: Trade and Conquest (Harper Collins, 2000)
37. Li Chen, "Law, Empire, and Historiography of Modern Sino-Western Relations: A Case Study of the Lady Hughes Controversy in 1784," Law and History Review 27, no. 1 (2009): 7.
38. For a recent study, see Edward L. Dreyer, China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York: Pearson and Longman, 2007).
39. About Qing notions of sovereignty, see James L. Hevia, Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of1793 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 29-56.
40. Lydia H. Liu, The Clash of Empires: The Invention of China in Modern World Making (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 2.
41. R. Randle Edwards, "Imperial China's Border Control Law," Journal of Chinese Law 1, no. 33 (1987): 34-35.
42. For primary evidence, see Mingqing shiqi Aomen wenti dang'an wenx- ian huibian (Archival Sources on Macao in the Ming and Qing Periods) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1999), vol. 1. (Hereafter cited as MSAWDWH.)
43. Guoping Jin, ed., Xifang Aomen shiliao xuancui (Selected Historical Materials in Western Languages on Macao in theIph-l6th Centuries) (Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 2005), 78-106, 144-156;
44. T'ien-tse Chang, "Malacca and the Failure of the First Portuguese Embassy to Peking," Journal of Southeast Asian History 3, no. 2 (1962): 50-53.
45. Jin, XifangAomen shiliao xuancui, 93-107, 107-120 (1536), 258-70 (1569-87)
46. Manel Ollé, La invención de China: percepciones y estrategias filipinas respecto a China durante el siglo XVI (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000).
47. Jin, Xifang Aomen shiliao xuancui, 234, 23 9, 241.
48. For the population estimate, see Tien-tse Chang, Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514-1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources (New York: AMS Press, 1973 [1934]), 97.
49. Andrew Ljungstedt, An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settlements in China (London: J. Munroe, 1836), 78-79 (also mentioning the Chinese assertion of sovereignty in 1582).
50. About the edict, see Jin, Xifang Aomen shiliao xuancui, 234, 239, 241.
51. Jin, Xifang Aomen shiliao xuancui, 254.
52. For evidence of Chinese rule of Macao, see Guan- gren Yin and Rulin Zhang, Ao'men jilue jiaozhu (Annotated Edition of The Brief Records of Macao), coll. Zhao Chunchen (Macao: Aomen wenhuasi shu, 1992 [1751]), 68-95
53. Fang Liu and Wenqin Zhang, eds., Putaoya Dongpota dang'anguan chang Qingdai Ao'men zhongwen dang'an huibian (Collection of Chinese Documents on the Qing-Dynasty Macao at the IAN/TT Archives in Portugal) (Macao: Aomen jijinhui, 1999). Cf. Chang, Sino-Portuguese Trade, 90.
54. Ljungstedt, An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settlements, 82-83
55. Hongzhao Huang, Aomen tongzhi yu jindai Aomen (The Subprefect Office of Macao and Modern Macao) (Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 2006), 42 (quoting a 1634 memorial).
56. Hosea Ballou Morse, ed., The Chronicles of the British East India Company Trading to China, 1635-1834, 5 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926-1929), I: 5-6.
57. Hosea Ballou Morse, ed., The Chronicles of the British East India Company Trading to China, 1635-1834, 1926-1929), I, Ibid., 6-7
58. Reprinted in Anthony Farrington, ed., The English Factory in Japan, 1613-1623 (London: British Library, 1991), I: 83, 84-85.
59. Morse, Chronicles, I: 194.
60. Chang, "Malacca," 57 (quoting comments in 1520). The British first reached Macao in 1635.
61. Morse, Chronicles, I: 14-30, 15-16 and 25-27 (for the quotations)
62. John Bruce, Annals of the Honorable East-India Company [from 1600-1708] (London: Black, Parry and Kingsbury, 1810), I: 357.
63. For the Portuguese case, see Chang, "Malacca," 52.
64. About Grotius, see Peter Borschberg, "The Seizure of the .Sta. Catarina Revisited: The Portuguese Empire in Asia, VOC Politics and the Origins of the Dutch-Johor Alliance (1602 - c.1616)," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 33, no. 1 (2002): 31-62. (Pubitemid 46002695)
65. Contract for Settling an English Factory at Taiwan (10 Sept., 1670)
66. reprinted in Chang Hsiu-Jung, Anthony Farrington, et al., eds., The English Factory in Taiwan, 1670-1685 (Taibei: National Taiwan University Press, 1995), 56-57.
67. See John Francis Davis, The Chinese: A General Description of the Empire of China and Its Inhabitants, 2 vols. (London: Charles Knight & Co., 1836), I: 45.
68. Peter Auber, China. An Outline of Its Government, Laws and Policy (London: Parbury, Allen, and Co., 1834), 153-54; Morse, Chronicles, I: 60-84 (on the 1729 proposal and early Sino-British disputes).
69. Yin and Zhang, Aomen jilue jiaozhu, 73-76, 265-69;
70. MSAWDWH, I: 158-61 (1730), 191-93 (1742, for the quotations), 196-97 (1743), 203-209 (1745).
71. Yin and Zhang, Aomen jilue jiaozhu, 77-80.
72. See Morse, Chronicles, I: 29 (1755), II: 40 (1755), V: 37-44 (1755), V: 68-98.
73. Yin and Zhang, Aomen jilue jiaozhu, 77-80, 92-95
74. MSAWDWH, I: 194-97, 200-202, 196 (on the connection between the approval of the Subprefect Office with the Anson incidence)
75. Huang, Aomen tongzhiyu jindai Aomen, 75-79
76. Gongzhongdang Yongzheng chao zouzhe (Secret Palace Memorials of the Yungcheng Period), 32 vols. (Taibei: Guoli gugong bowuyuan, 1977-1980), 18: 30 (1732).
77. On Anson's voyages, see George Anson, "A Voyage around the World," in The Universal Library: Voyages and Travels (London: Nathaniel Cooke, 1853 [1748])
78. Davis, The Chinese, I: 59-60.
79. The Portuguese claimed religious differences and customs in Macao to argue for differential treatment. See Yin and Zhang, 89-90
80. MSAWDWH, I: 198-99; Gongzhongdang Qianlongchao zouzhe (Secret Palace Memorials of the Ch'ien-lung Period), 75 vols. (Taipei: Guoli gugong bowuyuan, 1983-1988), 57: 13-14 (1783, citing the 1744 rule).
81. This procedure was applied to the Chinese in 1829 for killing the crew of a French ship. See Qingdai waijiao shiliao: Daoguang chao (Sources for Qing Diplomatic History: The Daoguang Reign) (Taibei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968), 238-39.
82. Junjichu dangzhe jian (Archives of the Grand Council of the Qing Dynasty) (Taibei: Guoli gugong buwoyuan): 2772/25-23: 003441 (QL 13/10/3);
83. 2740/42-3: 004080 (QL 14/2/3);
84. 2740/42-3: 004073 (QL 14/3/6);
85. Yin and Zhang, Aomen jilue jiaozhu, 87-88, 267, also 91-92 (quoting Qianlong's 1748 edict)
86. MSAWDWH, I: 238-53 (on the case)
87. Lo-shu Fu, A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations (1644-1820) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1966), 186-88
88. Ljungstedt, 105-107 (from the Portuguese perspective on this case).
89. Huang, Aomen tongzhi yu jindai Aomen, 75-80, 79
90. (quoting C.A. Montalto de Jesus, Historic Macao: International Traits in China, Old and New (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1984 [1902]), 179-182).
91. Qingdai waijiao shiliao, 311-315 (1830), 311 (for the quotation), 314-15 (quoting the 1754 edict).
92. Morse, Chronicles, I: 168.
93. Li Chen, "Law and Sensibility of Empire in the Making of Modern China, 1750-1900" (Dissertation, Columbia University, 2009), 25-87, 291-545.
94. Morse, Chronicles, I: 168.
95. "East India Company Factory Records," British Library (London): IOR/G/12/72: 19-21 (1781) (hereafter cited as "IOR"); Morse, Chronicles, II: 60.
96. Chen, "Law and Empire," 1-53.
97. Chen, "Law and Empire,", For all the contestation and accommodation in this case, see esp. ibid.: 11-38.
98. In the 1807 Neptune case, the British never actually turned over the British suspects to the Chinese. See IOR/G/12/154-G/12/156.
99. For its impact on later Sino-British/Western relations and historiography, see Chen, "Law and Empire," 38-53
100. Morse, Chronicles, II: 157-59 and 215. Also see IOR/G/12/90-G/12/93 (on records of the two embassies)
101. See the works cited in Footnote 1 above, esp. Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire, xviii and 537-53.
102. For the quoted English translation, see Pei-kai Cheng et al., The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 104-109
103. Morse, Chronicles, II: 248-50 (for a somewhat different translation). For the Chinese original, see Yingshi Majiderni fanghua dang'an shiliao huibian (Collection of Archival Materials about the Macartney Embassy to China) (Beijing: Guoji wenhua chuban gongsi, 1996), 55-60
104. MSAWDWH, I: 542-44 (Sept. 23, 1793).
105. The idea that the Qing rulers "set no value to strange objects" had been deployed as a prescriptive policy or normative ideal before this, see Tingnan Liang, Yue haiguan zhi (Gazetteer of the Guangdong Customs Station) (Taibei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1966), 600 (1784).
106. See, e.g., Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire, xviii-xix.
107. Yong Liu, The Dutch East India Company's Tea Trade with China, 1757-1781 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 1 (for the quotation).
108. John Y. Wong, Deadly Dreams: Opium, Imperialism, and the Arrow War (1856-60) in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 455, 468, 331-454.
109. Morse, Chronicles, II: 225, 237-38, 252-53 (requests), 215-29 (instructions). The request for freedom of proselytizing was perhaps added by a Jesuit translator.
110. For Qianlong's replies, see Yingshi Majia'erni fanghua dang'an, 173-174, 55-60 (for the Chinese version); MSAWDWH, I: 540-42, 553-56.
111. "Letter from King George III to the Emperor of China," at Morse, Chronicles, II: 247 (1792).
112. "Letter from King George III to the Emperor of China," at Morse, Chronicles, Ibid., II: 244. A rough translation of the Chinese text reads to the effect: "We have built many huge ships and sent many learned people to sail all over the world, not to enlarge Our already vast dominion, and not to pursue cheap bargains [or ..." (MSAWDWH, I: 540).
113. About this in the 16th and 17th centuries, see MSAWDWH, I: 1-178 (1624-1735).
114. "Letter from King George III to the Emperor of China," at Morse, Chronicles,, Ibid., I: 178-546 (1735-96).
115. Yingshi Majiaerni fanghua dang'an, 162-63
116. MSAWDWH, I: 540-41. The quotation is my translation of the Chinese text of George's letter as submitted to the Qing Court. The Chinese copy sounds less pretentious than the English original that reads: "We granted to Our enemies, after obtaining Victories over them in the four quarters of the World the blessing of Peace upon the most equitable conditions..., by engaging Our Allies in Hindostan to put an end to hostilities occasioned by the attack of an ambitious Neighbour, even when it was in Our power to destroy him," and that Lord Macartney had ruled "several of our most considerable possessions in the Eastern and Western parts of the World" (Morse, Chronicles, II: 244). Even before the embassy reached China, Qianlong had ordered the local officials to display China's military strength wherever the embassy went. See, e.g., MSAWDWH, I: 5i4-29
117. Quotation from the instructions to Macartney at Morse, Chronicles, II: 237-38, cf. II: 218-19.
118. Yingshi Majia'erni fanghua dang'an, 169, 395-97, 404
119. MSAWDWH, I: 547, 544, 557, 559, 578, 585, 594.
120. Cheng et al., The Search for Modern China, 108 (for the translation)
121. MSAWDWH, I: 535-36 (1793/8/30) (for the Chinese original); Liang, Yue haiguan zhi, 1683 and 1679-88.
122. Morse, Chronicles, II: 68 (1781), 156 (1787), and 215 (1792).
123. Morse, Chronicles, Ibid., II: 68 (1781).
124. The Qing Court permitted foreign trade only in Canton because it did not want to see another Macao (Liang, Yue haiguan zhi, 571-72 (1757), 1667, 1688-89 (suspecting that the British wanted to get their own Macao in China).
125. Cheng et al., 108; MSAWDWH, I: 554-56
126. Morse, Chronicles, II: 227, 250-51.
127. In 1814, the British refused to return an American ship they captured off the China coast as a wartime "prize," and the Chinese accused them of piracy and violation of Chinese law and sovereignty. The British Vice-Admiral later ordered that all H.M. ships should "cause the same respect to be paid to the Neutrality of the Chinese Empire as is agreeable to the Laws of Nations and conformable to the Rulers of other Neutral States under similar circumstances" (Morse, Chronicles, III: 219, also 215-16, 222, 65). See the EIC's instruction at John Barrow, "Free Trade to China," The Quarterly Review 100, no. 50 (1834): 440.
128. IOR/G12/79: 170-71 (1784); Chen, "Law and Empire," For the global discourses on Chinese law and punishments, see Chen, "Law and Sensibility," 291-359; Timothy Brook et al., Death by a Thousand Cuts (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008).
129. Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 2nd ed. (New York: Norton, 1999), 126-27
130. John K. Fairbank, China Watch (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 1.
131. "Political Relations between the United States and China," in Message from the President of the United States (Doc. No. 71) (Washington: Blair and Rives, 1840), 10-11, 23, 25-26.
132. The original copy of this paginated reprint is available at "Benjamin C. Wilcocks to John Quincy Adams (Nov. 1, 1821)," in Despatches from United States Consuls in Canton, 1790-1906, National Archives Microfilm, No. 101, Roll 1 (Washington: The National Archives, 1947).
133. See "Execution of an Italian at Canton," The North American Review 40, no. 1 (1835): 59
134. "American Intercourse with China," The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia XV (1834): 320-21.
135. For a meticulous critique of the traditional narrative, see Joseph Askew, "Re-visiting New Territory: The Terranova Incident Re-examined," Asian Studies Review 28, no. 4 (2004): 351-71.
136. See esp. "Political Relations," 10-11, 23.
137. Also see Askew, "Re-visiting New Territory," 365.
138. The Americans largely echoed the British characterization of Chinese justice since their arrival in 1784 and also tried various means to resist or evade Chinese jurisdiction. See, e.g., "Political Relations," 11-13, 29.
139. R. Randle Edwards, "Ch'ing Legal Jurisdiction over Foreigners," in Essays on China's Legal Tradition, ed. Jerome Alan Cohen, et al. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 222-69.
140. Anchoring at Macao in May 1817, the Wabash from Baltimore carried 34 cases of opium, among other stuff, and five of its crew were killed or drowned, and with a few others wound by fifteen Chinese "pirates" ("Political Relations," 2-3). For the Chinese records, see Liang, Yue haiguan zhi, 1753-55.
141. Liang, Yue haiguan zhi, 1753. The emperor also censured the provincial officials for proposing to compensate the Americans for their lost opium in this case (Ibid., 1753-54).
142. The term "immediate and strict justice" is from the Governor-General in 1817 at "Political Relations," 9.
143. This was based on Wilcox's narrative at "Political Relations," 10-11. Wilcox became the American Consul in 1812. He was one of the first and major American opium traders in Canton, who also used his consular status to fend off Chinese searches of his opium- smuggling ships.
144. See Jacques M. Downs, "American Merchants and the China Opium Trade, 1800-1840," The Business History Review 42, no. 4 (1968): 423-35
145. Morse, Chronicles, III: 237.
146. About the negotiation and trial from an American perspective, see "Political Relations," 9-16, 32-36, 52-53.
147. Cf. Askew, "Re-visiting New Territory," 357-67. Wilcox's assertion ("Political Relations," 16-17) that execution of Terranova before the emperor's approval was "directly contrary to the laws of the empire" was based on a misperception of applicable Chinese law (see the 1744 rule above).
148. "Political Relations," 34.
149. Quoted in "American Intercourse with China," 321. He excepted Wilcox in this charge. For similar comments in the EIC records
150. see Morse, Chronicles, IV: 112 (1825).
151. Sir Henry Ellis, A Series of Letters on the East India Question, 2nd ed. (London: 1830), 34.
152. Davis, The Chinese, I: 100, 101-104 (about this case from the British perspective).
153. Cf. Yapian zhanzheng dang'an shiliao (Archival Materials about the Opium War), comp. Zhong- guo diyi lishi dang'anguan (Tianjin: Tianjin guji chubanshe, 1992), 1: 28, 34, 39, 46, 52.
154. Barrow, "Free Trade to China," 462.
155. "Execution of An Italian at Canton," 59, 68.
156. Cf. Chen, "Law and Empire," 12-17, 40-53.
157. "Journal of Occurrences [Executions]," The Chinese Repository IV, no. 6 (1835): 60.
158. See Chen, "Law and Empire," 50. For debates on British criminal justice in this period
159. see V.A.C. Gatrell, The Hanging Tree: Execution and the English People 1770-1868 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
160. See Hsin-pao Chang, Commissioner Lin and the Opium War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964).
161. The law officer of the Crown noted that interference with such sovereignty "can only be justified by positive treaty or implied permission usage." See an 1839 dispatch from Palm- erston to Elliot quoted in "War with China," in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates (Third Series) (London: British Parliament, 1840), 686
162. (cited as "Hansard's Parliamentary Debates in 1840").
163. Also see Lord Melbourne's speech on May 12, 1840
164. "War with China: Order in Council, Presented to Parliament by Her Majesty's Command," The Chinese Repository IX, no. 5 (1840): 253-54.
165. "War with China: Order in Council," 252 (debates in the House of Lords).
166. For the translation of Vattel's treatise, see Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, China's Entrance into the Family of Nations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, i960), 123-25
167. Liu, Clash of Empires, 118-20.
168. Yapian zhanzheng dang'an, I: 643-46, 661-62.
169. For a copy of the Chinese text and English translation, see Lewis J. Shuck, Portfolio Chinensis (Macao: 1840), 128-49.
170. Another translation in "Letter to the Queen of England, from the High Imperial Commissioner Lin," The Chinese Repository VIII, no. 10 (1840): 497-503.
171. Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations; Or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns, trans. Joseph Chitty (London: Stevens & Sons, 1834 [1758]), 39-40 (emphasis added).
172. Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations; Or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns,1834 , 39-40 Ibid.
173. Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations; Or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns,1834 , Ibid., 38, also 39-40.
174. James Matheson, The Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China (London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 1836), 33, 35. For his role in the opium trade and in shaping British politics related to China
175. see Alain Le Pichon, ed., China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827-1843 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
176. Matheson, The Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China, 33-49, 35 (for the quotation, emphasis original).
177. Matheson, The Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China, Ibid., 44.
178. Matheson, The Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China, Ibid., 41-43, 42 (on the lack of treaty).
179. See John Austin, The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined and the Use of the Study of Jurisprudence (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1998 [1832]).
180. Matheson, The Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China, 36.
181. Those domestic laws cited by Matheson had no power over "free nations." See Grotius, The Free Sea, 43, 53.
182. Grotius, The Free Sea, Ibid, 50-51.
183. Grotius, The Free Sea, Ibid, 67.
184. Charles Marjoribanks, Letter to the Right Hon. Charles Grant, President of the Board of Controul, on the Present state of British Intercourse with China (London: J. Hatchard & Son, 1833), 53.
185. Charles Marjoribanks, Letter to the Right Hon., President of the Board of Controul, on the Present state of British Intercourse with China, 1833, Ibid., 50, also 50-52.
186. John Quincy Adams, "Lecture on the War with China (1)," The Albion, A Journal of News, Politics and Literature 3, no. 50 (1841): 433.
187. Adams, "Lecture on the War with China (1)," 431.
188. Adams, "Lecture on the War with China (2)," The Albion, A Journal of News, Politics and Literature 3, no. 51 (1841): 441-4.
189. Adams, "Lecture on the War with China (1)," 435.
190. Adams, "Lecture on the War with China (1)," 435, Ibid. (emphasis added).
191. Adams, "Lecture on the War with China (1)," 435, Ibid.
192. "Political Relations," 9-51, 15-16 (for the quotation).
193. See, e.g., "Lecture on the War with China," The Chinese Repository XI, no. 5 (1842): 274-89
194. "British Intercourse with China," The Foreign Quarterly Review (American Ed.) 35 (1845): 437-44
195. "British Intercourse with China," The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature IV (1845): 383-92.
196. Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law: With a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1836), 245.
197. Wheaton, Elements of International Law, 8th ed., ed. Richard Henry Dana (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1866), 22, also 178 (quoting the Treaty of Wangxia on American extraterritoriality).
198. Alexandrowicz, An Introduction, 10-11. For more about this doctrine
199. see Anthony Ang- hie, Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 32-100
200. Martti Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: Rise and Fall of International Law 1870-1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
201. Wheaton, Elements of International Law (1866), 22 (quoting remarks by editor Richard Henry Dana). For the Chinese translation
202. see Henry Wheaton, Wanguo gongfa (Elements of International Law), trans. William A. P. Martin (Beijing: Chongshiguan, 1864). For a stimulating study of the translation
203. see Liu, Clash of Empires, 108-39.
204. Also see Rune Svar- verud, International law as World Order in Late Imperial China: Translation, Reception and Discourse, 1847-1911 (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2007).
205. "War with China: Order in Council," 247-48 (Parliamentary debates).
206. See Chen, "Law and Sensibility," 88-290 (for an extensive study of Staunton).
207. Sir George Thomas Staunton, Remarks on the British Relations with China, and the Proposed Plans for Improving Them (London: E. Lloyd, 1836), 13-14. But if hostilities did arise, he saw "no reason to shrink" from taking some Chinese islands as British "depots" under British law and jurisdiction.
208. George Thomas Staunton, Remarks on the British Relations with China, and the Proposed Plans for Improving Them, 1836, Ibid., 31, 35, 2, 8, 10.
209. "Hansard's Parliamentary Debates in 1840," 675.
210. George Thomas Staunton, Corrected Report of the Speech of Sir George Staunton, on Sir James Graham's Motion on the China Trade, in the House of Commons, April 7,1840 (London: Edmund Lloyd, i840), ii.
211. George Thomas Staunton, Sir James Graham's Motion on the China Trade, in the House of Commons, 1840, Ibid., 13.
212. George Thomas Staunton, Sir James Graham's Motion on the China Trade, in the House of Commons, 1840, Ibid., 12-14, 14 (for the quotation).
213. Staunton, Corrected Report of the Speech (1840), 15.
214. Staunton, Corrected Report of the Speech (1840), Ibid., 11.
215. "War with China: Order in Council," 245-46.
216. See "Hansard's Parliamentary Debates in 1840," 703-38.
217. "War with China: Order in Council," 249-51, 251 (for the quotations)
218. "Hansard's Parliamentary Debates in 1840," 925-47.
219. Staunton, Corrected Report of the Speech (1840), 14-15.
220. Staunton, Corrected Report of the Speech (1840), Ibid., 14-15.
221. See "House of Commons [April 7, on China]," The Times, April 8, 1840.
222. "War with China: Order in Council," 251-54 (May 12, 1840).
223. "Hansard's Parliamentary Debates in 1840," 966 (in the Lords).
224. Quotation from John Newsinger, "Britain's Opium Wars - Fact and Myth about the Opium Trade in East," The Monthly Review 49, no. 5 (1997): 39.
225. Quotation from Nicholas B. Dirks, The Scandal of Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial Britain (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 34.
226. For an excellent study of Sino-American relations in this regard, see Teemu Ruskola, "Canton is Not Boston: The Invention of American Imperial Sovereignty," The American Quarterly 57, no. 3 (2005): 859-84.