The modern irrationalities of American criminal codes: An empirical study of offense grading

Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology

Volumn 100, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 709-764

  Robinson, Paul H ^a   Gaeta, Thomas ^b   Majarian, Matthew ^c   Schultz, Megan ^c   Weck, Douglas M ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79551481758     PISSN: 00914169     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (480)

1. Paul H. Robinson & Markus D. Dubber, The American Model Penal Code: A Brief Overview, 10 NEW CRIM. L. REV. 319, 323 (2007).
2. Herbert Wechsler, American Law Institute: II. A Thoughtful Code of Substantive Law, 45 J. CRIM. L., CRIMINOLOGY & POLICE SCI. 524, 526 (1955).
3. Robinson & Dubber, supra note 1, at 321
4. see also Sanford H. Kadish, The Model Penal Code's Historical Antecedents, 19 RUTGERS L.J. 521, 534-35 (1988).
5. Robinson & Dubber, supra note 1, at 321.
6. Kadish, supra note 3, at 525.
7. Id. at 526.
8. Robinson & Dubber, supra note 1, at 322.
9. Kadish, supra note 3, at 537.
10. One exception was the enactment of the Louisiana Penal Code in 1942.
11. Robinson & Dubber, supra note 1, at 322.
12. Id. at 323.
13. Wechsler, supra note 2.
14. Robinson & Dubber, supra note 1, at 322.
15. Herbert Wechsler, Foreword to MODEL PENAL CODE (1985).
16. Sanford H. Kadish, Fifty Years of Criminal Law: An Opinionated Review, 87 CALIF. L. REV. 943, 949 (1999).
17. Paul H. Robinson & Michael T. Cahill, The Accelerating Degradation of American Criminal Codes, 56 HASTINGS L.J. 633, 636-37 (2005).
18. Id. at 638.
19. Id. at 640.
20. For instance, the official comments to 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 302 (West 1998), which defines culpability levels, state that the purpose of the section was to replace "wilfully" and "maliciously," which were used in common law but had no settled meaning. Nonetheless both terms appear throughout Pennsylvania's criminal code.
21. See, e.g., 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3305 (West Supp. 2010);
22. PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3929.1 (West Supp. 2010)
23. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5511 (West Supp. 2010) (defining the required culpability for various offenses as "willfully and maliciously").
24. See, e.g., 35 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 780-113 (West Supp. 2010) (outlining dozens of drug-related offenses of varying grades, the majority of which are never referenced in Pennsylvania's criminal code).
25. See Robinson & Cahill, supra note 17, at 638-639
26. See id. at 639.
27. Paul H. Robinson, Michael T. Cahill & Usman Mohammad, The Five Worst (and Five Best) American Criminal Codes, 95 NW. U. L. REV. 1, 60 (2000) (noting that Pennsylvania's criminal code ranks nineteenth).
28. Though all of the five categories are significant in the larger picture of criminal code effectiveness, the last mentioned-accuracy in grading liability and punishment-is most affected by grading irrationalities. Pennsylvania's criminal code was at its weakest in this category. While Pennsylvania was above-average in most of the other categories, it was tied for thirty-fourth out of fifty-two here.
29. Id. at 51. Thus, at the time of this 2000 study, the Pennsylvania Crimes Code was below average in both consistency in grading and in recognizing appropriate distinctions between crimes. Id.
30. Id at 62.
31. For a discussion of the literature, see paul h. Robinson, DISTRIBUTIVE PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LAW:WHO SHOULD BE PUNISHED HOW MUCH? 135-212 (2008)
32. Paul H. Robinson & John M. Darley, Intuitions of Justice: Implications for Criminal Law and Justice Policy, 81 S. CAL L. REV. 1 (2007)
33. Paul H. Robinson, Geoff P. Goodwin & Michael Reisig, The Disutility of Injustice (forthcoming 2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1470905.
34. 18PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3302 (West Supp. 2010).
35. See, e.g., 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 503 (West 1998) (stating that "[c]onduct which the actor believes to be necessary to avoid a harm or evil to himself or to another is justifiable if: (1) the harm or evil sought to be avoided by such conduct is greater than that sought to be prevented by the law defining the offense charged").
36. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5511(c) (West Supp. 2010).
37. Compare 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(b) (West 2000), with § 5511(c). This example is similar to a recent Pennsylvania case involving theft of a dog.
38. Commonwealth v. Grimes, 982 A.2d 559 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2009).
39. The presence of sentencing guidelines in Pennsylvania does not fix the problem of inappropriately graded offenses, as trial judges are free to impose any term up to the statutory maximum, regardless of the suggested guideline range. Sentencing, Pennsylvania Commission on Sentencing, June 28, 2010, http://pcs.la.psu.edu/guidelines/sentencing.
40. A judge with idiosyncratic views of the offense at hand could disregard the guidelines entirelyviews of the seriousness of the crime. In addition, when offenses are graded too low, judges lack the authority to award an appropriate punishment for the conduct at hand. An offense graded too high can similarly result in inappropriate punishment, as the judge is given discretion to award sentences that are more serious than the offense warrants.
41. Such non-uniformity of sentences may also negatively affect compliance with the law by reducing the public perception of the legal system as legitimate-the compliance with legitimate authority is seen as an obligation associated with citizenship.
42. Tom R. Tyler & John M. Darley, Building a Law-Abiding Society: Taking Public Views About Morality and the Legitimacy of Legal Authorities into Account when Formulating Substantive Law, 28 HOFSTRA L. REV. 707, 716-17 (2000).
43. This perception that the law is legitimate and ought to be obeyed is founded, in part, on the view that legal decision-making is fair and neutral-a difficult hurdle when similar defendants may be given dramatically differing sentences.
44. Tom R. Tyler, Legitimacy and Criminal Justice: The Benefits of Self-Regulation, 7 OHIO ST. J. CRIM. L. 307, 319 (2009).The considered grading of criminal offenses may be of particular importance to a legislature focusing on improving compliance through increase in legitimacy.
45. The average cost of incarceration in 2008 was approximately $100 per prisoner per day. See PEW CTR. ON THE STATES, 1 IN 31: THE LONG REACH OF AMERICAN CORRECTIONS-PENNSYLVANIA (2009). In all, the Commonwealth spent over $1.6 billion on prison costs, approximately 6.7% of all Commonwealth spending.
46. Crimes Code (1972), P.L. 1482, No. 334 (codified as amended at 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. §§ 2101-7661 (West 1998 & Supp. 2009)).
47. By "suboffense," we mean a course of defined conduct with an offense grade different from that of other conduct defined in the same code section. In other words, a criminal code might have three suboffenses of robbery or five suboffenses of theft depending upon the number of different grades of the offense that it recognizes. Within Title 18, each separate grade for conduct is counted as a separate offense.
48. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 106 (West 1998).
49. Generally 18 PA. CONS. STAT. (2009).
50. To determine the number of criminal law sections outside of the Crimes Code, the entirety of the Pennsylvania Code was searched for criminal offenses. Each criminal section outside of Title 18 is counted in this figure. The number of amendments was obtained through examination of legislative histories as reported in the Westlaw database of Pennsylvania Statutes Annotated. Included in the amendment count are any instances where a statute section was added, passed, or otherwise affected by legislative action. For an illustration of the timing of amendments to Title 18,
51. see note 136 infra.
52. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5111(a) (West Supp 2010).
53. Mean=3.21, Mode=3, SD=1.290, p<0.005;
54. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983)
55. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
56. § 5111(a)-(b).
57. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4116(b) (West Supp 2010).
58. Mean=1.18, Mode=0, SD=1.146, p<0.005;
59. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5503(a)-(b) (West Supp. 2010).
60. § 4116(b).
61. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7613 (West Supp. 2010).
62. Mean=1.46, Mode=1, SD=1.424, p<0.005;
63. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983)
64. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b)(2) (West Supp 2010).
65. § 7613
66. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3311(a)(2) (West Supp 2010).
67. Mean=3.64, Mode=3, SD=1.187, p<0.005;
68. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(v)-(b) (West Supp 2010)
69. § 3311(a)(2)-(b).
70. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5902(b)(4)-(8) (West Supp 2010).
71. Mean=2.40, Mode=0, SD=2.009, p<0.005;
72. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983)
73. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
74. § 5902.
75. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7615 (West Supp. 2010).
76. Mean=1.56, Mode=1, SD=1.398, p<0.005;
77. § 3902;
78. § 3903(b)(2).
79. § 7615.
80. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2902(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010) (defining unlawful restraint as knowingly "hold[ing] another in a condition of involuntary servitude").
81. Mean=7.13, Mode=7, SD=1.374, p<0.005;
82. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2702(a)(1)-(b) (West Supp. 2010).
83. § 2902(b).
84. One might argue that many of the survey items are cases in which the maximum of the offense does not apply and that the case presented would be a more mitigated form of the offense calling for a more mitigated sentence than the maximum. But, of course, that is true as well of the "milestone offense" to which the subjects compared it. Each milestone offense presumably includes more aggravated forms, which will deserve a sentence nearer to the maximum, and more mitigated forms, which will deserve a much lower sentence. The subjects were asked to compare each offense to the milestone offense to which it most properly compares, with each side of that comparison being an offense that could be more or less aggravated.
85. Erik Luna & Paul G. Cassell, Mandatory Minimalism, 32 CARDOZO L. REV. 1, 11 (2010).
86. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6111(g)(3) (West Supp. 2010).
87. Mean=3.93, Mode=3, SD=1.670, p<0.005;
88. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983)
89. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
90. § 6111(h)(1).
91. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4915(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
92. Mean=2.46, Mode=1, SD=1.997, p<0.005;
93. § 3902;
94. § 3903(b)(2).
95. 42 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 9718.3 (West Supp. 2010).
96. 42 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 9718.2 (West 2007).
97. Mean=6.26, Mode=6, SD=1.609, p<0.005;
98. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3124.1 (West 2000).
99. § 9718.2.
100. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3212(b) (West 2000).
101. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4304(a)-(b) (West Supp. 2010).
102. Title 18 does not contain a provision barring conviction under multiple sections even if one offense is included in the other. This makes it possible for a person to be convicted of multiple offenses that criminalize essentially the same conduct. The Model Penal Code prevents this in Section 1.07. Although the Pennsylvania Code is based upon the Model Penal Code, it did not adopt this provision. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court has fashioned a rule to partially fill the gap: [I]f a person commits one act of criminal violence, and the act is the only basis upon which he may be convicted of another crime, the act will merge into the other crime. If, however, the actor commits multiple acts beyond that which is necessary to establish the bare elements of the additional crime, then the actor will be guilty of multiple crimes which do not merge for sentencing purposes.
103. Commonwealth v. Anderson, 650 A.2d 20, 24 (Pa. 1994).
104. This has been interpreted to require courts to compare the elements of the offenses. If both offenses require proof of at least one element that the other offense does not, the offenses are not greater- and lesser-included offenses.
105. Commonwealth v. Johnson, 874 A.2d 66, 70 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2005).
106. If the elements of one offense are all included in the elements of the greater offense and the greater offense has at least one additional element, then the offenses merge. Id. The rule tracks part of Model Penal Code Section 1.07: "[a]n offense is so included when. it is established by proof of the same or less than all the facts required to establish the commission of the offense charged" MODEL PENAL CODE § 1.07(4)(a).
107. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3309 (West Supp. 2010).
108. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3304 (West Supp. 2010).
109. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2714 (West 2000).
110. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3121(a)(4) (West Supp. 2010)
111. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 905(a) (West 1998).
112. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2707(a) (West 2000).
113. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2705 (West 2000).
114. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3702 (West 2000).
115. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(v) (West 2000)
116. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2903 (West Supp. 2010). In Appeal of T.G., 836 A.2d 1003 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2003), the court held that evidence that a fourteen-year-old took a six-year-old inside her house, pulled her hair, and kept her inside for less than half an hour when she was crying to leave was sufficient for a finding of false imprisonment.
117. Mean=7.22, Mode=7, SD=1.143.
118. Mean=2.17, Mode=0, SD=1.143, p<0.005.
119. 42 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 9718.2 (West 2007).
120. Mean=7.36, Mode=7, SD=0.795.
121. Mean=3.10, Mode=3, SD=1.805, p<0.005.
122. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6312(c) (West Supp. 2010).
123. Mean=5.57, Mode=6, SD=1.937.
124. Mean=2.70, Mode=3, SD=2.046, p<0.005.
125. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3930(a) (West Supp. 2010).
126. Mean=2.29, Mode=1, SD=1.735.
127. Mean=5.58, Mode=5, SD=1.373, p<0.005.
128. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4108(a) (West 1983).
129. Mean=1.80, Mode=2, SD=1.095.
130. Mean=4.65, Mode=5, SD=1.307, p<0.005.
131. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983)
132. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903 (West Supp. 2010).
133. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3929.1(b) (West Supp. 2010).
134. §§ 3902-3903.
135. § 3929
136. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2701(a) (West Supp. 2010).
137. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2702(a)(4), (b) (West Supp. 2010).
138. § 2702(a)(1), (b).
139. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3301(a) (West Supp. 2010).
140. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3302(a) (West Supp. 2010).
141. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4952(b)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
142. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5124 (West 1983).
143. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5126 (West Supp. 2010).
144. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4910 (West 1983).
145. This study was not designed to take the place of a comprehensive polling instrument. It was necessarily limited by both time and funding constraints.
146. Mechanical Turk is a service operated by Amazon.com and designed to provide a low-cost pool of labor to complete online tasks. This system coordinates a large pool of paid volunteers who perform paid tasks over the Internet, including many other tasks besides surveys, for a wide range of requesters. "Requesters" (those needing work to be completed) prepay Amazon.com and then set a price per task completed. The task is then released to the "workers" who submit their work for approval and payment by the requester. Subjects recruited from Mechanical Turk were paid between $0.65 and $1.50.
147. The most commonly used site, Craigslist.org, is a free, online, classified-advertising site. It offers community-specific advertising in Pennsylvania for Altoona-Johnstown, Cumberland Valley, Erie, Harrisburg, Lancaster, Lehigh Valley, Meadville, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, the Poconos, Reading, Scranton, State College, Twin Tiers, Wilkes-Barre, Williamsport, and York.
148. According to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2006-2008 American Community Survey, the population of Pennsylvania is 83.8% white, 10.3% black or African-American, 0.1% American Indian or Alaska Native, 2.4% Asian American, 4.6% Hispanic or Latino, and 3.4% some other race or two or more races. U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, PENNSYLVANIA-FACT SHEET, http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=Search&_lan g=en&_sse=on&geo_id=04000US42&_state=04000US42 (last visited Jun. 26, 2010). Our participants slightly over represented white Pennsylvanians and Native Americans and under-represented black and Hispanic residents.
149. Where this was done, the illustrative facts sought to present a common instance of the offense rather than an unusually severe or unusually trivial instance. However, the situations we chose did not always illustrate the most common instance of the offense.
150. Deviating from the most common instance of the offense was necessary at times, especially when testing offenses that we believed Pennsylvania residents might find overly broad (those listed in Appendix D). In testing these offenses, we gave two examples of conduct that we believed could be prosecuted under the offense. For each offense tested, we created one example showing conduct exhibiting the least amount of blameworthiness or resulting harm that could be reasonably prosecuted under the offense, and one example showing conduct exhibiting the most amount of blameworthiness or resulting harm that could reasonably be prosecuted under the offense. Even in coming up with these examples, which were intended to flush out overly broad offenses, we stayed within the boundaries of what we believed to be the reasonable and possible applications of the offense.
151. In the first phase of the Mechanical Turk portion of the study, subjects were only required to complete fifty-five test questions and were given an opportunity to categorize an additional fifty-five offenses if they chose. The survey was presented in this fashion to ensure that respondents were required to devote no more time to the survey than they preferred. After the first two weeks of data collection, however, it was found that over 85% of participants were completing the entire survey. Because our initial Mechanical Turk advertisement specified one price for the required portion of the survey and another as the "bonus" for full completion, some workers were confused as to how much they could earn. Upon requiring completion of all questions for payment (and offering full payment), we saw a substantial increase in response rate. Note, however, that volunteer participants were never required to finish any number of questions, because enforcement of the requirement would be impossible; thus volunteers completed between 5 and 108 questions. Each set of responses was also tested for statistical significance using a one sample t-test; these results are reported in the notes as well.
152. All responses other than "I do not understand the test offense" were included in the analysis
153. This number includes amendments both to Title 18 and criminal statutes outside that title. The number of amendments was obtained through careful examination of legislative histories as reported in the Westlaw database of Pennsylvania Statutes Annotated. Included in the amendment count are any instances where a statute was added, passed, or otherwise affected by legislative action. For an illustration of the timing of amendments to Title 18, see note 136 infra.
154. Robinson & Cahill, supra note 17 (discussing degradation of the American Criminal code, the politics that drives degradation, and how criminal codes can be improved).
155. The authors frequently cite examples of degradation in their respective work on the Illinois and Kentucky codes. Like Pennsylvania, both states adopted model codes in the 1960s but have since experienced a proliferation of criminal law amendments both within and without the code.
156. Robinson et al., supra note 24 (ranking the five best and the five worst criminal codes using a quantitative scoring system measuring the codes' effectiveness in announcing rules of conduct and its ability to adjudicate by being comprehensible, in alignment with its community's sense of justice, and consistent in grading). Pennsylvania fell in neither the top five nor the bottom five.
157. William J. Stuntz, The Pathological Politics of Criminal Law, 100 MICH. L. REV. 505, 531-532 (2001).
158. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3307(a)(2), (b) (West Supp. 2010) (defining institutional vandalism as follows: "[a] person commits the offense of institutional vandalism if he knowingly desecrates, as defined in Section 5509. any cemetery, mortuary, or other facility used for the purpose of burial or memorializing the dead. Grading-An offense under this section is a felony of the third degree if the actor causes pecuniary loss in excess of $5,000. Otherwise, institutional vandalism is a misdemeanor of the second degree").
159. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5509(a)(1) (West Supp. 2010) (defining desecration, theft, or sale of venerated objects as follows: "[a] person commits a misdemeanor of the second degree if he. intentionally desecrates any public monument or structure, or place of worship or burial.").
160. 3307(b) (defining the gradation of institutional vandalism as follows: "[a]n offense under this section is a felony of the third degree if the act is one of desecration as defined in section 5509 or if the actor causes pecuniary loss in excess of $5,000") (emphasis added).
161. 18PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 905(a) (West 1998) (defining gradation of criminal attempt, solicitation, and conspiracy as follows: "[e]xcept as otherwise provided in this title, attempt, solicitation and conspiracy are crimes of the same grade and degree as the most serious offense which is attempted or solicited").
162. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3121(b) (West Supp. 2010) (defining additional penalties for rape as follows: "[i]n addition to the penalty provided for subsection (a), a person may be sentenced to an additional term not to exceed ten years' confinement. where the person engages in sexual intercourse. and has substantially impaired the complainant's power to appraise or control his or her conduct by administering. any substance for the purpose of preventing resistance.").
163. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2714 (West 2000) (defining unauthorized administration of intoxicant as follows: "[a] person commits a felony of the third degree when, with intent to commit an offense under section 3121(a)(4). he or she substantially impairs the complainant's power to appraise or control his or her conduct by administering, without the knowledge of the complainant, drugs or other intoxicants").
164. Crimes Code, P.L. 1482, No. 334 (codified as amended at 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. §§ 2101-7661 (West 1998 & Supp. 2010));
165. See supra note 124.
166. In 2003, Kentucky sought to revise its penal code, which had increased by hundreds of offenses since the state had adopted a new code in 1974. The Kentucky Penal Code Revision Project was able to consolidate the offenses into a clear, comprehensible, and rational statement of Kentucky criminal law that retained policy decisions of the current code but reduced its size to close to 1974 levels. See CRIMINAL JUSTICE COUNCIL, FINAL REPORT OF THE KENTUCKY PENAL CODE REVISION PROJECT (2003), available at http://www.law.upenn.edu/fac/phrobins/kentucky/KYFinalReportVol1.pdf http://www.law.upenn.edu/fac/phrobins/kentucky/KYFinalReportVol2.pdf.
167. Illinois undertook a similar recodification effort and found that many sections of the new code were able to state Illinois law in less than 10% of the words than were used in the then-current code. ILL. CRIMINAL CODE REWRITE & REFORM COMM'N, FINAL REPORT (2003), available at http://www.law.upenn.edu/fac/phrobins/illinois/IL%20final%20report%20Vol 1.pdf http://www.law.upenn.edu/fac/phrobins/illinois/IL%20final%20report%20Vol 2.pdf.
168. For a detailed discussion of political obstacles facing penal code reform and ways to overcome them, see Robinson & Cahill, supra note 17, at 645-52.
169. This is a common problem in many, if not most, states. See id. at 636 (discussing instances of serious crimes occurring outside the criminal codes in Illinois and Kentucky).
170. Examples of this problem might be seen in archaic criminal codes, such as 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7361 (West 2000) (prohibiting any "worldly employment or business whatsoever" on Sunday);
171. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7104(a) (West 2000) (prohibiting fortune-telling)
172. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7105 (West 2000) (prohibiting pool rooms to be open on Sundays)
173. One might consider, in addition, the offenses in the survey that many Pennsylvania residents rated as "no punishment," such as the sale of goods manufactured by convicts in another state-i.e. those having a mode of 0.
174. This could be accomplished by demonstrating either that the proposed grade is the same as those for existing offenses or that the conduct in the proposed legislation is of a different level of seriousness than that covered by existing law.
175. A similar but related problem occurs with the passage of broad offenses that encompass preexisting specific crimes. In the 1972 code, the legislature adopted a broad, Model Penal Code-based offense for reckless endangerment and stated in an official comment that "[t]his section consolidates the various provisions which penalize reckless behavior."
176. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2705 (West 2000).
177. Despite this commentary, the legislature concurrently reenacted existing specific prohibitions. These prohibitions included disposing of a refrigerator in a place accessible to children
178. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6502 (West 2000), allowing a light to dangerously interfere with train signals
179. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6909 (West 2000), and the sale of gasoline in a glass container
180. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7305 (West 2000). In each case, the older, specific statute provides for a lower grade than the broad statute, effectively giving a prosecutor the ability to determine the grade of many courses of conduct by choosing which statute to prosecute.
181. The adoption of a binding official commentary would address both types of problems. Legislatures would be empowered to amend the commentary to ensure that new conducts were included in the existing statutory framework without adding unnecessary complexity to the code. At the same time, the legislature would be able to eliminate archaic or specific code sections while ensuring that the conduct they prohibit is still enumerated in the code.
182. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2707 (West 2000).
183. § 2705
184. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3309(a) (West Supp. 2010).
185. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3304(a)(5) (2009) (West Supp. 2010).
186. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3702 (West 2000). This law was originally passed in 1993.
187. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(ii) (West 2000). Two decades after passing the Crimes Code, the legislature enacted a new statute, which provided that theft of a motor vehicle in the presence of its owner shall be graded as a first degree felony. This specific statute addressed conduct already barred under the generic robbery statute and provided the same grade as the prior law would for most situations.
188. Id. at § 3701(a)(1)(ii), (b) (grading robbery with a threat of serious bodily injury as a first degree felony). In the paradigmatic carjacking scenario, where an offender threatens the driver of a vehicle to facilitate the theft of the vehicle, the generic robbery statute would provide a grade of first degree felony.
189. Id. at § 3701(b). Despite being of the same grade, the specific offense is problematic for two reasons: first, a subsequent change in grade for either of the statutes could introduce a discrepancy; and second, the specific offense allows for fewer nuances in grading. While the generic robbery statute makes grading distinctions based upon the severity of threats or injuries occurring during a robbery, the specific statute does not. An offender stealing a car from its occupant without making any threats of injury or further criminal conduct is graded the same as one who does.
190. For further discussion of the use of an official commentary, see Robinson & Cahill, supra note 17, at 654-55.
191. See supra Part I.
192. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5516(a) (West Supp. 2010).
193. 152 Mean=1.87, Mode=1, SD=1.756, p<0.005
194. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983)
195. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(a)(1), (b) (West Supp. 2010).
196. § 5516(a).
197. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4101 (West Supp. 2010).
198. Mean=1.73, Mode=0, SD=1.581, p<0.005;
199. § 3902
200. § 3903(b)(2)
201. § 4101(c)
202. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2904 (West 2000).
203. Mean=2.01, Mode=0, SD=1.999, p<0.005;
204. § 3902;
205. § 3903(b)(2).
206. § 2904(c).
207. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3503(a)(1)(i) (West Supp. 2010).
208. Mean=1.92, Mode=1, SD=1.393 (see App. F, item A30);
209. § 3902
210. § 3903(b)(2).
211. § 3503(a)(1)(i).
212. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4302 (West Supp. 2010).
213. Mean=2.92, Mode=0, SD=2.747, p<0.005
214. § 3902
215. § 3903(b)(1).
216. § 4302.
217. § 3903(a)(4).
218. Mean=3.07, Mode=2, SD=1.861, p<0.005;
219. § 3902;
220. § 3903(b)(1).
221. § 3903(a)(4).
222. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2904(a), (c)(1) (West 2000).
223. Mean=2.48, Mode=1, SD=1.717, p<0.005;
224. § 3902
225. § 3903(b)(2).
226. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2904(c) (West Supp. 2010).
227. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7614 (West Supp. 2010).
228. Mean=3.53, Mode=5, SD=1.845, p<0.005;
229. § 3902;
230. § 3903(b).
231. § 7614(a).
232. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5903(a)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
233. Mean=1.75, Mode=1, SD=1.569, p<0.005;
234. § 3902;
235. § 3903(b)(2).
236. § 5903(a)(1).
237. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7107 (West 2000).
238. Mean=1.87, Mode=0, SD=1.595, p<0.005;
239. § 3902;
240. § 3903(b)(2).
241. § 7107.
242. § 5903(a)(1).
243. Mean=1.93, Mode=1, SD=1.513, p<0.005;
244. § 3902;
245. § 3903(b)(2).
246. §5903(a)(1).
247. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5511.3(a) (West Supp. 2010).
248. Mean=3.84, Mode=3, SD=2.108, p<0.005;
249. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2709.1(a)(1)-(c) (West Supp. 2010).
250. § 5511.3(a).
251. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7331 (West Supp. 2010).
252. Mean=3.03, Mode=3, SD=1.749, p<0.005;
253. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
254. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
255. § 7331.
256. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5705(1) (West 2000).
257. Mean=2.93, Mode=3, SD=1.731, p<0.005; § 3902;
258. § 3903(b).
259. § 5705(1).
260. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5903(d) (West Supp. 2010).
261. Mean=4.06, Mode=4, SD=2.036, p<0.005;
262. § 3902;
263. § 3903(b).
264. § 5903(d).
265. Mean=3.12, Mode=1, SD=2.173, p<0.005;
266. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2701 (West Supp. 2010).
267. § 5903(d)
268. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(ii) (West 2000).
269. Mean=5.06, Mode=5, SD=1.462, p<0.005;
270. at § 3701.
271. § 3701(a)(1)(ii).
272. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7507 (West 2000).
273. Mean=1.06, Mode=0, SD=1.474, p<0.005;
274. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2709(a), (c) (West Supp. 2010).
275. § 7507.
276. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4116 (West Supp. 2010).
277. Mean=2.86, Mode=3, SD=1.404, p<0.005;
278. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
279. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
280. § 4116.
281. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7508(a)(3)(ii) (West Supp. 2010);
282. 35 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. §§ 780-113(a)(14), (a)(30), (a)(37), (f)(1.1), 780-115(a) (West 2000).
283. Mean=5.15, Mode=5, SD=1.976, p<0.005;
284. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701 (West 2000).
285. §§ 780-113 (a)(14), (a)(30), (a)(37), (f)(1.1), 780-115(a).
286. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6111(g)(4) (West Supp. 2010).
287. Mean=3.27, Mode=3, SD=1.886, p<0.005;
288. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
289. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
290. § 6111(g)(4).
291. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7508(a)(4)(ii) (West Supp. 2010);
292. §§ 780-113 (a)(14), (a)(30), (a)(37), (f)(1.1), 780-115(a).
293. Mean=5.18, Mode=5, SD=1.861, p<0.005;
294. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701 (West 2000).
295. §§ 780-113 (a)(14), (a)(30), (a)(37), (f)(1.1), 780-115(a).
296. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4117(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
297. Mean=3.35, Mode=4, SD=1.624, p<0.005;
298. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
299. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
300. § 4117(a)(2).
301. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3503(b)(1)(v) (West Supp. 2010).
302. Mean=2.19, Mode=1, SD=1.447, p<0.005;
303. § 3902;
304. § 3903(b).
305. § 3503(b)(1)(v).
306. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6303 (West 2000).
307. Mean=2.25, Mode=0, SD=2.037, p<0.005;
308. § 3902;
309. § 3903(b).
310. § 6303.
311. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6301(a)(1) (West 2000).
312. Mean=2.40, Mode=1, SD=1.894, p<0.005;
313. § 3902;
314. § 3903(b).
315. § 6301(a)(1).
316. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4104(a) (West 1983).
317. Mean=2.34, Mode=3, SD=1.614, p<0.005;
318. § 3902;
319. § 3903(b).
320. § 4104(a).
321. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5903(c) (West Supp. 2010).
322. Mean=3.54, Mode=3, SD=2.108, p<0.005;
323. § 3902;
324. § 3903(b).
325. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(v) (West 2000).
326. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5502 (West 2000).
327. Mean=1.40, Mode=1, SD=0.869, p<0.005;
328. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2709(a), (c) (West Supp. 2010).
329. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2701(a), (b) (West Supp. 2010).
330. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4117(b)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
331. Mean=2.58, Mode=3, SD=1.714, p<0.005;
332. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
333. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
334. § 4117(b)(2).
335. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3127 (West 2000).
336. Mean=2.51, Mode=1, SD=2.012, p<0.005;
337. § 3902; § 3903(a)(1), (b).
338. § 3127.
339. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7307 (West 2000).
340. Mean=1.37, Mode=0, SD=1.668, p<0.005;
341. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5503(a)-(b) (West 2000).
342. § 7307.
343. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7313(a)-(b) (West Supp. 2000).
344. Mean=3.21; Mode=4, SD=1.319, p<0.005;
345. § 3902;
346. § 3903(b).
347. § 7313(a)-(b).
348. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3121(c), (e)(1) (West Supp. 2010);
349. 42 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 9718 (West 2007).
350. Mean=5.64, Mode=6, SD=1.831, p<0.005;
351. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(iv) (West 2000).
352. § 3121(c), (e)(1);
353. § 9718.
354. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3307(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
355. Mean=3.80, Mode=3, SD=1.650, p<0.005;
356. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
357. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
358. § 3307(a)(2).
359. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5123(c)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
360. Mean=2.78, Mode=3, SD=1.650, p<0.005;
361. § 3902
362. § 3903(b).
363. § 5123(c)(1).
364. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5904 (West 2000).
365. Mean=2.06, Mode=0, SD=2.375, p<0.005;
366. § 3902;
367. § 3903(b).
368. § 5904.
369. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6106(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
370. Mean=2.89, Mode=3, SD=1.830, p<0.005;
371. § 3902;
372. § 3903(b).
373. § 6106(a)(2).
374. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4913 (West Supp. 2010).
375. Mean=3.03, Mode=3, SD=1.50, p<0.005;
376. § 3902;
377. § 3903(b).
378. § 4913.
379. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4117(b)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
380. Mean=3.07, Mode=4, SD=1.658, p<0.005;
381. § 3902
382. § 3903(b).
383. § 4117(b)(1).
384. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4301 (West 1983).
385. Mean=2.36, Mode=1, SD=1.910, p<0.005;
386. § 3902;
387. § 3903(b).
388. § 4301.
389. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4116.1 (West Supp. 2010).
390. Mean=2.30, Mode=2, SD=1.456, p<0.005;
391. § 3902;
392. § 3903(b).
393. § 4116.1.
394. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7313(a)-(b) (West 2000).
395. Mean=3.21; Mode=4, SD=1.319, p<0.005.
396. § 3902;
397. § 3903(a)(1), (b).
398. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7321 (West 2000).
399. Mean=2.32, Mode=1, SD=1.737, p<0.005;
400. § 3902;
401. § 3903(b).
402. § 7321.
403. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4119(a) (West Supp. 2010).
404. Mean 4.15, Mode=5, SD=1.513, p<0.005;
405. § 3902;
406. § 3903(b).
407. § 4119(a).
408. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2706(a), (d) (West Supp. 2010).
409. Mean=4.26, Mode=3, SD=1.726, p<0.005;
410. § 3902;
411. § 3903(b).
412. § 2706(a), (d).
413. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4305 (West 1983).
414. Mean=6.17, Mode=7, SD=1.810, p<0.005;
415. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3701(a)(1)(iv) (West 2000).
416. § 4305.
417. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3303 (West 2000).
418. Mean=4.80, Mode=5, SD=1.729, p<0.005;
419. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
420. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(a)(1), (b) (West Supp. 2010).
421. § 3303.
422. § 4953(a); § 9712.
423. Mean=5.66, Mode=7, SD=1.636, p<0.005;
424. § 3701(a)(1)(iv).
425. § 4953(b);
426. § 9712.
427. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2910 (West Supp. 2010).
428. Mean=6.50, Mode=7, SD=1.569, p<0.005;
429. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2702(a)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
430. § 2910;
431. 42 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 9718.2(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
432. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4915(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
433. Mean=3.07, Mode=3, SD=2.366, p<0.005;
434. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
435. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
436. § 9718.3.
437. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2604(a) (West 1998);
438. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 1102(a)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
439. Mean=7.19, Mode=8, SD=2.21, p<0.005;
440. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2702(a)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
441. § 2604(a);
442. § 1102(a)(2).
443. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6111(a)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
444. Mean=3.32, Mode=3, SD=1.830, p<0.005;
445. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
446. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903(b) (West Supp. 2010).
447. § 6111(h).
448. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2707.2(a)(1) (West Supp. 2010).
449. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2701 (West Supp. 2010).
450. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3503(b)(2) (West Supp. 2010).
451. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3503(b)(1)(ii) (West Supp. 2010).
452. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7661(a), (b)(3) (West Supp. 2010).
453. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4104(a) (West 1983).
454. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2707.1 (West Supp. 2010).
455. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2705 (West 2000).
456. § 2707.1(b).
457. § 2705.
458. 30 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5502(a)(3) (West Supp. 2010).
459. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 5516 (West Supp. 2010).
460. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 4905 (West Supp. 2010).
461. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2905 (West 2000).
462. Id. at § 2905(a).
463. Mean=4.32, Mode=5, SD=2.067.
464. Mean=2.09, Mode=1, SD=1.747, p<0.005.
465. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 2902(a) (West Supp. 2010).
466. § 2902(b)(1).
467. Mean=5.32, Mode=7, SD=1.717.
468. Mean=7.00, Mode=7, SD=2.177, p<0.005.
469. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 6111(g)(3) (West Supp. 2010).
470. Mean=2.29, Mode=1, SD=1.745.
471. Mean=3.84, Mode=4, SD=1.746, p<0.005
472. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3902 (West 1983);
473. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3903 (West Supp. 2010).
474. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7614 (West Supp. 2010).
475. § 3902;
476. § 3903.
477. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 7613 (West Supp. 2010).
478. § 3902;
479. § 3903.
480. 18 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3930(b) (West Supp. 2010).