Unconscious perception: A model-based approach to method and evidence

Perception and Psychophysics

Volumn 66, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 846-867

  Snodgrass, Michael ^a   Bernat, Edward ^b   Shevrin, Howard ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN HEALTH SYSTEM   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 7944223104     PISSN: 00315117     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/BF03194978     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. ABRAMS, R. L., & GREENWALD, A. G. (2000). Parts outweigh the whole (word) in unconscious analysis of meaning. Psychological Science, 11, 118-124.
2. ADAMS, J. K. (1957). Laboratory studies of behavior without awareness. Psychological Bulletin, 54, 383-405.
3. ASHBY, F. G., & PERRIN, N. (1988). Toward a unified theory of similarity and recognition. Psychological Review, 95, 124-150.
4. ASHBY, F. G., & TOWNSEND, J. (1986). Varieties of perceptual independence. Psychological Review, 93, 154-179.
5. BAARS, B. (1997). Contrastive phenomenology: A thoroughly empirical approach to consciousness. In N. Block, O. Flanagan, & G. Guzeldere (Eds.), The nature of consciousness: Philosophical debates (pp. 187-201). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
6. BALOTA, D. A. (1983). Automatic semantic activation and episodic memory encoding. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 22, 88-104.
7. BERNAT, E., SHEVRIN, H., & SNODGRASS, M. (2001). Subliminal visual oddball stimuli evoke a P300 component. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 112, 159-171.
8. BERNSTEIN, I. H., BISSONNETTE, V., VYAS, A., & BARCLAY, P. (1989). Semantic priming: Subliminal perception or context? Perception & Psychophysics, 45, 153-161.
9. BLOCK, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of consciousness. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 18, 227-287.
10. BLOCK, N. (2001). Paradox and cross purposes in recent work on consciousness. Cognition, 79, 197-219.
11. CARR, T. H., & DAGENBACH, D. (1990). Semantic priming and repetition priming from masked words: Evidence for a center-surround attentional mechanism in perceptual recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 16, 341-350.
12. CARR, T. H., MCCAULEY, C., SPERBER, R. D., & PARMELEE, C. M. (1982) Words, pictures, and priming: Ou semantic activation, conscious identification, and the automaticity of information processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 8, 757-777.
13. CHEESMAM, J., & MERIKLE, P. M. (1984). Priming with and without awareness. Perception & Psychophysics, 36, 387-395.
14. CHEESMAN, J., & MERIKLE, P. M. (1986). Distinguishing conscious from unconscious perceptual processes. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 343-367.
15. DAGENBACH, D. & CARR, T. H. (1994). Inhibitory processes in perceptual recognition: Evidence for a center-surround attentional mechanism. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 327-357). San Diego: Academic Press.
16. DAGENBACH, D., CARR, T. H., & WILHELMSEN, A. (1989). Task-induced strategies and near-threshold priming: Conscious influences on unconscious perception. Journal of Memory & Language, 28, 412-443.
17. DARK, V. J. (1988). Semantic priming, prime reportability, and retroactive priming are interdependent. Memory & Cognition, 16, 299-308.
18. DARK, V. J., & BENSON, K. (1991). Semantic priming and identification of near threshold primes in a lexical decision task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43A, 53-78.
19. DIXON, N. (1981). Preconscious processing. New York: Wiley.
20. DOSHER, B. A. (1998). The response-window regression method-Some problematic assumptions: Comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 311-317.
21. DOYLE, J. R. (1990) Detectionless processing with semantic activation? A footnote to Greenwald, Klinger, and Liu (1989). Memory & Cognition, 18, 428-429.
22. DOYLE, J. R., & LEACH, C. (1988). Word superiority in signal detection: Barely a glimpse, yet reading nonetheless. Cognitive Psychology, 20, 283-318.
23. DRAINE, S. C., & GREENWALD, A. G. (1998). Replicable unconscious semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 286-303.
24. DULANY, D. E. (1997). Consciousness in the explicit (deliberative) and implicit (evocative). In J. D. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to consciousness (pp. 179-212). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
25. DUNCAN, J. (1985). Two techniques for investigating perception without awareness. Perception & Psychophysics, 38, 296-298.
26. DUNN, J. C., & KIRSNER, K. (1988). Discovering functionally independent mental processes: The principle of reversed association. Psychological Review, 95, 91-101.
27. DUNN, J. C., & KIRSNER, K. (1989). Implicit memory: Task or process? In S. Lewandowsky, J. Dunn, & K. Kirsner (Eds.), Implicit memory: Theoretical issues (pp. 17-31). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
28. DURANTE, R., & HIRSHMAN, E. (1994). Retrospective priming and masked semantic priming: The interfering effects of prime activation. Journal of Memory & Language, 33, 112-127.
29. EIMER, M. (1999). Facilitatory and inhibitory effects of masked prime stimuli on motor activation and behavioral performance. Acta Psychologica, 101, 293-313.
30. EIMER, M., & SCHLAGHECKEN, F. (1998). Effects of masked stimuli on motor activation: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 24, 1737-1747.
31. EIMER, M., & SCHLAGHECKEN, F. (2002). Links between conscious awareness and response inhibition: Evidence from masked priming. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 514-520.
32. ERDELYI, M. H. (1985). Psychoanalysis: Freud's cognitive psychology. New York: W. H. Freeman.
33. ERDELYI, M. H. (1986). Experimental indeterminacies in the dissociation paradigm of subliminal perception. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 9, 30-31.
34. ERIKSEN, C. W. (1960). Discrimination and learning without awareness: A methodological survey and evaluation. Psychological Review, 67, 279-300.
35. FOWLER, C. A., WOLFORD, G., SLADE, R., & TASSINARY, L. (1981). Lexical access with and without awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 341-362.
36. GESCHEIDER, G. (1997). Psychophysics: The fundamentals (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
37. GOLDIAMOND, I. (1958). Indicators of perception: I. Subliminal perception, subception, unconscious perception: An analysis in terms of psychophysical indicator methodology. Psychological Bulletin, 55, 373-411.
38. GREEN, D. M., & BIRDSALL, T. (1978). Detection and recognition. Psychological Review, 85, 192-206.
39. GREEN, D. M., & SWETS, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley.
40. GREENWALD, A. G., & DRAINE, S. C. (1998). Distinguishing unconscious from conscious cognition-Reasonable assumptions and replicable findings: Reply to Merikle and Reingold (1998) and Dosher (1998). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 320-324.
41. GREENWALD, A. G., DRAINE, S. C., & ABRAMS, R. L. (1996). Three cognitive markers of unconscious semantic activation. Science, 273, 1699-1702.
42. GREENWALD, A. G., KLINGER, M. R., & LIU, T. J. (1989). Unconscious processing of dichoptically masked words. Memory & Cognition, 17, 35-47.
43. GREENWALD, A. G., KLINGER, M. R., & SCHUH, E. S. (1995). Activation by marginally perceptible ("subliminal") stimuli: Dissociation of unconscious from conscious cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 22-42.
44. GROEGER, J. A. (1988). Qualitatively different effects of undetected and unidentified auditory primes. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40A, 323-339.
45. HAASE, S. J. (1994). A signal detection theory interpretation of "unconscious" perception. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55(06), 2422B.
46. HAASE, S. J., & FISK, G. D. (2001). Confidence in word detection predicts word identification: Implications for an unconscious perception paradigm. American Journal of Psychology, 114, 439-468.
47. HAASE, S. J., THEIOS, J., & JENISON, R. (1999). A signal detection theory analysis of an unconscious perception effect. Perception & Psychophysics, 61, 986-992.
48. HINES, D. (1992). Subthreshold semantic priming: Not a context effect. Current Psychology: Research & Reviews, 11, 157-163.
49. HINES, D. (1993). Effect of masked picture primes on semantic priming for easy- and difficult-to-name words. Journal of General Psychology, 120, 149-165.
50. HINES, D., CZERWINSKI, M., SAWYER, P., & DWYER, M. (1986). Automatic semantic priming: Effect of category exemplar level and word association level. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 12, 370-379.
51. HIRSHMAN, E., & DURANTE, R. (1992). Prime identification and semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 18, 255-265.
52. HOLENDER, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.
53. JACK, A. I., & SHALLICE, T. (2001). Introspective physicalism as an approach to the science of consciousness. Cognition, 79, 161-196.
54. JACOBY, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory & Language, 30, 513-541.
55. JONES, G. (1987). Independence and exclusivity among psychological processes: Implications for the structure of recall. Psychological Review, 94, 229-235.
56. KAHAN, T. A. (2000). Negative priming from masked words: Retrospective prime clarification or center-surround inhibition? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 26, 1392-1410.
57. KEMP-WHEELER, S., & HILL, A. (1988). Semantic priming without awareness: Some methodological considerations and replications. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40A, 671-692.
58. KEMP-WHEELER, S., & HILL, A. (1992). Semantic and emotional priming below objective detection threshold. Cognition & Emotion, 6, 113-128.
59. KLAPP, S., & HINKLEY, L. (2002). The negative compatibility effect: Unconscious inhibition influences reaction time and response selection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 255-269.
60. KLAUER, K., & GREENWALD, A. G. (2000). Measurement error in subliminal perception experiments: Simulation analyses of two regression methods-Comment on Miller (2000). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 26, 1506-1508.
61. KLAUER, K., GREENWALD, A., & DRAINE, S. (1998). Correcting for measurement error in detecting unconscious cognition: Comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 318-319.
62. KLINGER, M. R., BURTON, P. C., & PITTS, G. S. (2000). Mechanisms of unconscious priming: I. Response competition, not spreading activation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 26, 441-455.
63. KLINGER, M. R., & GREENWALD, A. G. (1995). Unconscious priming of association judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 569-581.
64. KLOTZ, W., & NEUMANN, O. (1999). Motor activation without conscious discrimination in metacontrast masking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 25, 976-992.
65. MACMILLAN, N. A. (1986). The psychophysics of subliminal perception. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 9, 38-39.
66. MACMILLAN, N. A., & CREELMAN, C. D. (1991). Detection theory: A user's guide. New York: Cambridge University Press.
67. MANDLER, G. (1994). Hypermnesia, incubation, and mind popping: On remembering without really trying. In C. Umiltà & M. Moscovitch (Eds.), Attention and performance XV (pp. 3-33). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
68. MARCEL, A. J. (1983a). Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on visual masking and word recognition. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 197-237.
69. MARCEL, A. J. (1983b). Conscious and unconscious perception: An approach to the relations between phenomenal experience and perceptual processes. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 238-300.
70. MAXFIELD, L. (1997). Attention and semantic priming: A review of prime task effects. Consciousness & Cognition, 6, 94-113.
71. MCCAULEY, C., PARMELEE, C. M., SPERBER, R. D., & CARR, T. H. (1980). Early extraction of meaning from pictures and its relation to conscious identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 6, 265-276.
72. MCCLELLAND, J. L. (1987). The case for interactionism in language processing. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and performance XII: The psychology of reading. Hove, U.K.: Erlbaum.
73. MCCLELLAND, J. L., & RUMELHART, D. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407.
74. MERIKLE, P. M. (1982). Unconscious perception revisited. Perception & Psychophysics, 31, 298-301.
75. MERIKLE, P. M. (1984). Toward a definition of awareness. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 449-450.
76. MERIKLE, P. M. (1992). Perception without awareness: Critical issues. American Psychologist, 47, 792-795.
77. MERIKLE, P. M., & DANEMAN, M. (1998). Psychological investigations of unconscious perception. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 5, 5-18.
78. MERIKLE, P. M., & DANEMAN, M. (2000). Conscious vs. unconscious perception. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The new cognitive neurosciences (2nd ed., pp. 1295-1303). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
79. MERIKLE, P. M., & JOORDENS, S. (1997a). Measuring unconscious influences. In J. Cohen & J. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to consciousness (pp. 109-123). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
80. MERIKLE, P. M., & JOORDENS, S. (1997b). Parallels between perception without attention and perception without awareness. Consciousness & Cognition, 6, 219-236.
81. MERIKLE, P. M., JOORDENS, S., & STOLZ, J. A. (1995). Measuring the relative magnitude of unconscious influences. Consciousness & Cognition, 4, 422-439.
82. MERIKLE, P. M., & REINGOLD, E. M. (1990). Recognition and lexical decision without detection: Unconscious perception? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 16, 574-583.
83. MERIKLE, P. M., & REINGOLD, E. M. (1998). On demonstrating unconscious perception: Comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 304-310.
84. MERIKLE, P. M., SMILEK, D., & EASTWOOD, J. D. (2001). Perception without awareness: Perspectives from cognitive psychology. Cognition, 79, 115-134.
85. MILLER, J. (2000). Measurement error in subliminal perception experiments: Simulation analyses of two regression methods. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 26, 1461-1477.
86. NEELY, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226-254.
87. NEELY, J. H. (1991). Semantic priming effects in visual word recognition: A selective review of current findings and theories. In D. Besner (Ed.), Basic processes in reading: Visual word recognition (pp. 264-364). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
88. NOLAN, K. A., & CARAMAZZA, A. (1982). Unconscious perception of meaning: A failure to replicate. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 20, 23-26.
89. PRICE, M. C. (1990). Processing and awareness of masked stimuli. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge.
90. PRICE, M. C. (2001). Now you see it, now you don't: Preventing consciousness with visual masking. In P. Grossenbacher (Ed.), Finding consciousness in the brain: A neurocognitive approach (pp. 25-60). London: John Benjamins.
91. PRITCHARD, W. (1981). Psychophysiology of P300. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 506-540.
92. PURCELL, D. G., STEWART, A. L., & STANOVICH, K. E. (1983). Another look at semantic priming without awareness. Perception & Psychophysics, 34, 65-71.
93. REINGOLD, E. M., & MERIKLE, P. M. (1988). Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness. Perception & Psychophysics, 44, 563-575.
94. REINGOLD, E. M., & MERIKLE, P. M. (1990). On the inter-relatedness of theory and measurement in the study of unconscious processes. Mind & Language, 5, 9-28.
95. SHALLICE, T. (1988). Information-processing models of consciousness: Possibilities and problems. In A. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 305-333). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
96. SHEVRIN, H., & FRITZLER, D. (1968a). Brain response correlates of repressiveness. Psychological Reports, 23, 887-892.
97. SHEVRIN, H., & FRITZLER, D. (1968b). Visual evoked response correlates of unconscious mental processes. Science, 161, 295-298.
98. SHEVRIN, H., & RENNICK, P. (1967). Cortical response to a tactile stimulus during attention, mental arithmetic, and free associations. Psychophysiology, 3, 381-388.
99. SHEVRIN, H., SMITH, W., & FRITZLER, D. (1969). Repressiveness as a factor in the subliminal activation of brain and verbal responses. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 149, 261-269.
100. SHEVRIN, H., SMITH, W., & FRITZLER, D. (1970). Subliminally stimulated brain and verbal responses of twins differing in repressiveness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 76, 39-46.
101. SHEVRIN, H., SMITH, W., & FRITZLER, D. (1971). Average evoked response and verbal correlates of unconscious mental processes. Psychophysiology, 8, 149-162.
102. SMITH, M., BESNER, D., & MIYOSHI, H. (1994). New limits to automaticity: Context modulates semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 20, 104-115.
103. SMITH, M., THEODOR, L., & FRANKLIN, P. (1983). The relationship between contextual facilitation and depth of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 9, 697-712.
104. SNODGRASS, M. (2002). Disambiguating conscious and unconscious influences: Do exclusion paradigms demonstrate unconscious perception? American Journal of Psychology, 115, 545-580.
105. SNODGRASS, M. (in press). Unconscious perception and its implications for consciousness: Theory, method, and evidence. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
106. SNODGRASS, M., & SHEVRIN, H. (2002). Unconscious inhibition and facilitation at the objective detection threshold: Replicable and qualitatively different unconscious perceptual effects. Manuscript submitted for publication.
107. SNODGRASS, M., SHEVRIN, H., & KOPKA, M. (1993). The mediation of intentional judgments by unconscious perceptions: The influences of task strategy, task preference, word meaning, and motivation. Consciousness & Cognition, 2, 169-193.
108. STENBERG, G., LINDGREN, M., JOHANSSON, M., OLSSON, A., & ROSEN, I. (2000). Semantic processing without conscious identification: Evidence from event-related potentials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 26, 973-1004.
109. STOLZ, J. A., & BESNER, D. (1997). Visual word recognition: Effort after meaning but not (necessarily) meaning after effort. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 23, 1314-1322.
110. VAN SELST, M., & MERIKLE, P. M. (1993). Perception below the objective threshold? Consciousness & Cognition, 2, 194-203.
111. VAN VOORHIS, B. A., & DARK, V. J. (1995). Semantic matching, response mode, and response mapping as contributors to retroactive and proactive priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 913-932.
112. VISSER, T. A. W., & MERIKLE, P. M. (1999). Conscious and unconscious processes: The effects of motivation. Consciousness & Cognition, 8, 94-113.