A French imperial meridian, 1814-1870

Past and Present

Volumn 210, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 155-186

  Todd, David ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 79251549845     PISSN: 00312746     EISSN: 1477464X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/pastj/gtq063     Document Type: Article

References (174)

1. Bernard Lauzanne (ed.), L'Aventure coloniale de la France, 5 vols. (Paris, 1987-97), ii.
2. Jean Martin, L'Empire renaissant, 1789-1870, 85.
3. Christopher A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London, 1989).
4. On the distinction between the first and second British empires, see Vincent T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, 2 vols. (London, 1952-64).
5. Wm Roger Louis (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1998-9), v, 43-72.
6. On the distinction between predatory and developmental empire, see Antony G. Hopkins, 'Back to the Future: From National History to Imperial History', Past and Present, no. 164 (1999), 206.
7. Christopher A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Oxford, 2004), 120.
8. A view recently challenged by Pernille Røge in 'Political Economy and the Reinvention of France's Colonial System, 1756-1802' (Univ. of Cambridge Ph.D., 2010).
9. The first and second volumes of Denise Bouche and Pierre Pluchon, Histoire de la colonisation française, 2 vols. (Paris, 1991) respectively end and begin in 1815.
10. The ternary organization of the Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Jean Meyer, Jacques Thobie et al., Histoire de la France coloniale, 2nd edn, 3 vols. (Paris, 1996).
11. La Conquête until 1870, L'Apogée between 1870 and 1931, and Le Déclin since 1931 - reveals that its main focus remains the Third Republic's empire; and four out of the five volumes of L'Aventure coloniale de la France deal with post-Revolutionary developments, making little attempt to connect them with the single volume on L'Empire des rois.
12. With the exception of Frederick Quinn, The French Overseas Empire (Westport, Conn., 2000), other general histories also tend to combine an emphasis on the revolutionary discontinuity with a teleological bias towards the advent of the Third Republic's empire: Arthur Conte, L'É popée coloniale de la France (Paris, 1992).
13. Jacques Binoche-Guedra, La France d'outre-mer, 1815-1862 (Paris, 1992).
14. Robert Aldrich, Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (Basingstoke, 1996).
15. See, among others, on the former moment, Jean Tarrade, Le Commerce colonial de la France à la fin de l'Ancien Régime: l'évolution du régime de l'exclusif de 1763 à 1789 (Paris, 1972).
16. Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 2004).
17. On the latter moment, Raoul Girardet, L'Idée coloniale en France de 1871 à 1962 (Paris, 1972).
18. Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge and New York, 1996).
19. The clause was abrogated by a decree on 15 February 2006; on contemporary French politics and colonial history, see Pascal Blanchard, Nicolas Bancel and Sandrine Lemaire (eds.), La Fracture coloniale: la société française au prisme de l'héritage colonial (Paris, 2005).
20. Stéphane Dufoix and Patrick Weil (eds.), L'Esclavage, la colonisation et après: France, États-Unis, Grande-Bretagne (Paris, 2005).
21. See, for example, on Algeria, Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, Coloniser, exterminer: sur la guerre et l'État colonial (Paris, 2005).
22. On Pacific expansion, Hélène Blais, Voyage au grand océan: géographie du Pacifique et colonisation, 1815-1845 (Paris, 2005).
23. On the second abolition of slavery, Nelly Schmidt, Abolitionnistes de l'esclavage et réformateurs des colonies, 1820-1851 (Paris, 2000).
24. Christian Schefer, La France moderne et le problème colonial, 1815-1830 (Paris, 1907).
25. La Politique coloniale de la Monarchie de Juillet (Paris, 1928).
26. La Grande Pensée de Napoléon III: les origines de l'expédition du Mexique, 1858-1862 (Paris, 1939).
27. Charged with the classification of nineteenth-century administrative colonial papers in 1911, Schefer himself involuntarily (one hopes) contributed to making his scholarship immortal by adopting an 'unsophisticated' system of classification and by leaving the task uncompleted, which resulted in the 'breaking up' of original series and the loss of numerous papers.
28. see Jean Favier (ed.), Les Archives Nationales: état général des fonds, 5 vols. (Paris, 1978-88), iii, 374-5.
29. Many of the papers pertaining to the administration of Algeria between 1830 and 1870, held at the Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre in Vincennes, are also poorly catalogued, although this difficulty is compensated by the better cataloguing of ministerial papers on Algeria (series F80) and the archives of the Gouvernement Général de l'Algérie, both now at the Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer in Aix-en-Provence.
30. Gabriel Hanotaux and Alfred Martineau (eds.), Histoire des colonies françaises et de l'expansion de la France dans le monde, 6 vols. (Paris, 1930-4).
31. Georges Hardy, Histoire de la colonisation française (Paris, 1928).
32. Henri Blet, Histoire de la colonisation française, 3 vols. (Paris, 1946-50).
33. Emma Rothschild, 'The Transnationalization of the History of France' (Centre for History and Economics, 2008).
34. see also Laurent Dubois, 'An Atlantic Revolution', in the forum 'Is It Really Over? The French Revolution Twenty Years after the Bicentennial', French Hist. Studies, xxxii (2009).
35. With the exception, on the Revolutionary and Napoleonic period, of the works of Yves Benot and Marcel Dorigny. But it is characteristic that Benot never held an academic position, while Dorigny stressed, in a private conversation, held on 7 November 2009 and from which he authorised me to quote, that he did not rank among the academic 'mandarins' of the Revolution in France.
36. John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., vi (1953).
37. see also Wm Roger Louis (ed.), Imperialism: The Robinson and Gallagher Controversy (New York, 1976).
38. On the enduring usefulness of the concept of informal empire, see Matthew Brown (ed.), Informal Empire in Latin America: Culture, Commerce and Capital (Oxford, 2008).
39. Rondo Cameron, France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800-1914 (Princeton, 1961), parts one and two, passim.
40. Paul Bairoch, 'La Place de la France sur les marchés internationaux', and Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, 'La Balance des paiements et l'exportation des capitaux français', in Maurice Lévy-Leboyer (ed.), La Position internationale de la France: aspects économiques et financiers, XIXe-XXe siècles (Paris, 1977).
41. Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, British Imperialism, and the Improvement of the World (New Haven, 2000), 74-8.
42. Hamdi Abdou, 'L'Impact culturel de la France en Egypte au cours du XIXe siècle' (Univ. of Rennes 2 Ph.D. thesis, 1989), esp. 234-91.
43. Samir Saul, La France et l'Égypte de 1882 à 1914: intérêts économiques et implications politiques (Paris, 1997).
44. Daniel Panzac and André Raymond (eds.), La France et l'Égypte à l'époque des vice-rois, 1805-1882 (Paris, 2002).
45. Caroline Piquet, La Compagnie du Canal de Suez: une concession française en Égypte, 1888-1956 (Paris, 2008).
46. Richard Drayton, 'The Twenty-First-Century Crisis of Imperialism?' (unpublished paper, 2008).
47. C. I. Hamilton, Anglo-French Naval Rivalry, 1840-1870 (Oxford, 1993).
48. Henri de Saint-Simon and Augustin Thierry, De la Réorganisation de la société européenne (1814), reproduced in Oeuvres de Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon, 6 vols. (Paris, 1966), i (1), 235.
49. Dominique de Pradt, Parallèle de la puissance anglaise et russe relativement à l'Europe, 2nd edn (Paris, 1823), 1-2.
50. First published also in 1823.
51. Letter to Stafford Northcote, 16 Sept. 1881; quoted in Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism, 2nd edn (London, 1981), 86.
52. Renaud Morieux, Une Mer pour deux royaumes: la Manche, frontière francoanglaise, XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles (Rennes, 2008), esp. 213-73.
53. Philippe Darriulat, Les Patriotes: la gauche républicaine et la nation (Paris, 2001), esp. 75-99.
54. Isabelle and Robert Tombs, That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present (London, 2006), 332-8.
55. Yves Benot, La Démence coloniale sous Napoléon, 2nd edn (Paris, 2006).
56. See also Yves Benot and Marcel Dorigny, Rétablissement de l'esclavage dans les colonies françaises, 1802: ruptures et continuités de la politique coloniale française (1800-1830) (Paris, 2003).
57. Schefer, France moderne, 72-4.
58. Gaston Raphanaud, Le Baron Malouet, ses idées, son œuvre (Paris, 1907).
59. Jean Ehrard and Michel Morineau, Malouet, 1740-1814 (Riom, 1990).
60. Bureau d'administration, reports of 20 and 25 June 1814 on Saint-Domingue; instructions to the gouverneurs and intendants of Martinique and Guadeloupe, 16 Aug. 1814.
61. Instructions to the gouverneur and intendant of Bourbon, 10 Oct. 1814: Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence (hereafter CAOM), 11/COL/61, fos. 3-4, 6-11, 13-14.
62. On the outcome of this mission and the failure met by another group of emissaries in 1816, see Beaubrun Ardouin, Études sur l'histoire d'Haïti, 11 vols. (Paris, 1853-60), viii, 78-121, 226-32, 240-58.
63. Serge Daget, 'L'Abolition de la traite des noirs en France de 1814 à 1831', Cahiers d'études africaines, xi (1971), and Répertoire des expéditions négrières françaises à la traite illégale, 1815-1850 (Nantes, 1988).
64. On the restoration of slavery and racial discrimination, see Frédéric Régent, La France et ses esclaves: de la colonisation aux abolitions, 1620-1848 (Paris, 2007), 270-7.
65. Schefer, France moderne, 275-300, 326-76.
66. Tarrade, Commerce colonial, 738-9.
67. Guillaume Daudin, Commerce et prospérité:la France au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 2005), 191-240.
68. Jacques Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français: histoire d'un divorce, 2nd edn (Paris, 2005), 58-69, 245-73.
69. Figures based on. These do not include the French slave-trade in the Indian Ocean, while the Bourbon sugar plantations expanded rapidly after 1815.
70. see Fuma Sudel, Une Colonie, île à sucre: l'économie de la Réunion au XIXe siècle (Saint-André de la Réunion, 1989), 30-5.
71. Ministère du commerce et des manufactures, Enquête sur les sucres (Paris, 1829), 224-30.
72. Lawrence C. Jennings, French Anti-Slavery: The Movement for the Abolition of Slavery in France, 1802-1848 (Cambridge, 2000).
73. On French intellectual debates about slavery after 1814, especially among economists, see Richard Arena, 'Pourquoi et comment faut-il abolir l'esclavage dans les colonies françaises? À propos des argumentations de Say, Sismondi et Rossi', in Fred Célimène and André Legris, L' É conomie de l'esclavage colonial: enquête et bilan du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris, 2002).
74. Albert Boime, Art in an Age of Counterrevolution (Chicago, 2004), 133-49.
75. On Géricault and anti-slavery, see Albert Boime, The Art of Exclusion: Representing Blacks in the Nineteenth Century (Washington, 1990), 51, 60-62.
76. On Schmaltz, see L. Jore, 'La Vie diverse et volontaire du colonel Julien-Désiré Schmaltz', Revue d'histoire des colonies, xl (1953).
77. Anon., De la situation des gens de couleur libres aux Antilles françaises (Paris, 1823).
78. Françoise Thésée, 'La révolte des esclaves du Carbet à la Martinique (octobre-novembre 1822)', Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer, lxxx (1993).
79. Melvin D. Kennedy, 'The Bissette Affair and the French Colonial Question', Jl of Negro Hist., xlv (1960).
80. 'Rapport au Roi en son Conseil Supérieur de Commerce et des Colonies sur le régime commercial de nos colonies en Amérique', 23 Nov. 1825: AN, F12 2619.
81. Joachim Benoit, 'L'Indemnité coloniale de Saint-Domingue et la question des rapatriés', Revue historique, ccxlvi (1971).
82. Schefer, France moderne, 197-223.
83. 'Rapport sur les concessions d'Afrique', 2 Sept. 1825: AN, F12 2620.
84. Schefer, France moderne, 440-41 and Politique coloniale, 52-3.
85. The best available synthesis on the conquest and early years of French rule in Algeria remains Charles-Robert Ageron and Charles-André Julien, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, 3rd edn, 2 vols. (Paris, 1979-86), i, La Conquête et les débuts de la colonisation, 1827-1871.
86. On the impact of the Haitian revolution on the course of the French Revolution, see Jeremy D. Popkin, 'The French Revolution's Other Island', in David Patrick Geggus and Norman Fiering (eds.), The World of the Haitian Revolution (Bloomington, 2009).
87. On the suppression of memories from Haiti and Algeria, see Marcel Dorigny, 'Aux origines: l'indépendance d'Haïti et son occultation', in Blanchard, Bancel and Lemaire, La Fracture, and Benjamin Stora, La Gangrène et l'oubli: la mémoire de la guerre d'Algérie (Paris, 1991).
88. Rafe Blaufarb, Bonapartists in the Borderlands: French Exiles and Refugees on the Gulf Coast, 1815-1835 (Tuscaloosa, 2005), 8-9, 57-8, 122-3, 159-60.
89. Bertrand Clauzel, Observations du général Clauzel sur quelques actes de son commandement à Alger (Paris, 1831).
90. Nouvelles observations de M. le maréchal Clauzel sur la colonisation d'Alger (Paris, 1833).
91. File 'Usquin', 1833-9: CAOM, F80 375.
92. On Clauzel's influence on the shaping of Algerian customs legislation, see minister of war to minister of commerce, 4 Sept. 1835: AN, F12 6179, and minister of war to Clauzel, 17 Nov. 1835: CAOM, F80 949; on the partial re-implementation of the Exclusif at Saint-Domingue in 1802.
93. See Ardouin, Études, v, 127-8.
94. David Todd, 'The impôts arabes: French Imperialism and Land Taxation in Colonial Algeria, 1830-1919', in John Tiley (ed.) Studies in the History of Tax Law, vol. 3, (Oxford, 2009).
95. British methods of economic exploitation in India also remained wedded to old mercantilist patterns well into the first half of the nineteenth century; see D. A. Washbrook, 'India, 1818-1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism', in Louis, Oxford History of the British Empire, v, 402-4.
96. Martial Douël, Un Siècle de finances coloniales (Paris, 1930), 232-3, 296.
97. Ahmed Bouyerdene, Abd El-Kader: l'harmonie des contraires (Paris, 2008), 47-85.
98. Paul M. Kielstra, The Politics of Slave Trade Suppression in Britain and France, 1814-1848: Diplomacy, Morality and Economics (Basingstoke and New York, 2000), 150-2, 250-8.
99. Schefer, Politique coloniale, 105-120, 487-503.
100. Lawrence C. Jennings, French Reaction to British Slave Emancipation (Baton Rouge and London, 1988), 168-204.
101. Jennings, French Anti-Slavery, 41.
102. Paul Butel, Histoire des Antilles françaises, XVIIe-XXe siècles (Paris, 2002), 259-69.
103. David Todd, L'Identité économique de la France: libre-échange et protectionnisme, 1814-1851 (Paris, 2008), 307-27.
104. Oruno D. Lara, Suffrage universel et colonisation, 1848-1852 (Paris, 2007).
105. Dieter Braunstein, Französische Kolonialpolitik, 1830-1852: Expansion, Verwaltung, Wirtschaft, Mission (Wiesbaden, 1983), 333-78.
106. Yvette Katan, 'Les Colons de 1848 en Algérie: mythes et réalités', Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, xxxi (1984).
107. Jennifer Pitts, A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France (Princeton, 2005), 123-62, 204-39.
108. Minutes of 'Commission de colonisation', 1842-3: CAOM, F80 1128; 'Commission mixte pour la révision du régime commercial de l'Algérie', 13 Dec. 1848: CAOM, 30/COL/47.
109. Anna Plassart, "'Un impérialiste libéral ?": Jean-Baptiste Say on Colonies and the Extra-European World', French Hist. Studies, xxxii (2009).
110. On physiocratic imperial reformism, see Pernille Røge, "'La Clef de Commerce": The Changing Role of Africa in France's Atlantic Empire c.1760-1797', History of European Ideas, special issue 'New Perspectives on the Atlantic', xxxiv (2008).
111. "'Legal Despotism and Enlightened Reform in the Îles du Vent": The Colonial Governments of Chevalier de Mirabeau and Mercier de la Rivière, 1754-1764', in Gabriel Paquette, Enlightened Reform in Southern Europe and its Atlantic Colonies, c.1750-1830.
112. On Chevalier, see Michael Drolet, 'Industry, Class and Society: A Historiographic Reinterpretation of Michel Chevalier', Eng. Hist. Rev., cxxiii (2008).
113. Yves Breton, 'Michel Chevalier, 1806-1879: entre le saint-simonisme et le libéralisme', in Yves Breton and Michel Lutfalla (eds.), L' É conomie politique en France au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1991).
114. Jean Walch, Michel Chevalier, économiste saint-simonien (Paris, 1975).
115. On Saint-Simonian interest in colonization and internationalization, see Marcel Emerit, Les Saint-Simoniens en Algérie (Paris, 1941).
116. Philippe Régnier (ed.), Etudes saint-simoniennes (Lyons, 2002).
117. Michel Chevalier, Lettres sur l'Amérique du Nord, 2 vols. (Paris, 1836), i, pp. x-xiii, 9.
118. Jules Duval, 'Programme', in L' É conomiste français, 25 Nov. 1861.
119. On Duval's views on colonization, see also his Histoire de l'émigration européenne, asiatique et africaine au XIXe siècle: ses causes, ses caractères, ses effets (Paris, 1862).
120. Les Colonies et la politique coloniale de la France (Paris, 1864).
121. Victor Hugo, Napoléon le petit, 37th edn (Paris, 1900), 22.
122. [1st] edn in 1852.
123. Jean-François Klein, 'Le Second Empire: une historiographie coloniale en situation? Nouvelles perspectives sur "l'empire de l'Empire"' (unpublished paper, 2008).
124. Hamilton, Anglo-French Naval Rivalry, 62-3, 82.
125. Michèle Battesti, La Marine de Napoléon III: une politique navale (Chambéry, 1998), 246-7, 765.
126. Arthur L. Dunham, The Anglo-French Treaty of Commerce and the Industrial Revolution in France (Ann Arbor, 1930),.
127. John V. Nye, War, Wine, and Taxes: The Political Economy of Anglo-French Trade, 1689-1900 (Princeton, 2007), 107-8.
128. Documents officiels relatifs à la loi sur le régime douanier des colonies (Paris, 1861), 106-9.
129. Michel Chevalier, Cours d'économie politique, 2nd edn, 3 vols. (Paris, 1855-66), ii, 524.
130. Peter J. Cain and Antony G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688-2000, 2nd edn (Harlow and New York, 2002), esp. 34-8, 107-83.
131. Lévy-Leboyer, 'La Balance des paiements', 119-21.
132. Hubert Bonin, Suez: du canal à la finance, 1858-1987 (Paris, 1987), 3-32, 53-9.
133. Marc Flandreau, L'Or du monde: la France et la stabilité du système monétaire international, 1848-1873 (Paris, 1995).
134. On French bimetallism, see also Angela Redish, 'The Persistence of Bimetallism in Nineteenth-Century France', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xlviii (1995).
135. Luca L. Einaudi, 'From the Franc to the "Europe": The Attempted Transformation of the Latin Monetary Union into a European Monetary Union, 1865-1873', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., liii (2000).
136. Yves Saint-Martin, Le Sénégal sous le Second Empire: naissance d'un Empire colonial (Paris, 1989).
137. Milton E. Osborne, The French Presence in Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and Response (1859-1905), 2nd edn (Bangkok, 1997).
138. Quoted in Marcel Emerit, 'Les Méthodes coloniales de la France sous le Second Empire', Revue africaine, lxxxvii (1943), 210.
139. On French commercial activism under the Second Empire, see Peter Marsh, Bargaining on Europe: Britain and the First Common Market, 1860-1892 (New Haven and London, 1999), 28-61.
140. .
141. Last consulted on 12 December 2010.
142. Albert Boime, Art in an Age of Civil Struggle, 1848-1871 (Chicago, 2007), 606.
143. Chevalier, Lettres, vol. i, pp. x-xii.
144. Roger Price, The French Second Empire: An Anatomy of Political Power (Cambridge, 2001), 194-200.
145. Marcel Launay, Hélène de Chappotin (1839-1904) et les Franciscaines missionnaires de Marie (Paris, 2001).
146. J. P. Daughton, An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880-1914 (Oxford and New York, 2006), 37-8.
147. Henrietta Harrison, "'A Penny for the Little Chinese": The French Holy Childhood Association in China, 1843-1951', Amer. Hist. Rev., cxiii (2008).
148. Pierre Renouvin, Histoire des relations internationales, 2nd edn, 3 vols. (Paris, 1994), ii, 571-600, 608-11.
149. Annie Rey-Glodzeiguer, Le Royaume arabe: la politique algérienne de Napoléon III, 1861-1870 (Algiers, 1977).
150. Born in French Guyana in 1812, the son of a white French merchant and of a free mulatto woman, Ismayl (or Ismaÿl) Urbain was educated in Marseilles, where he became an adept of the Saint-Simonian religion. He later preached the Saint-Simonian gospel in Constantinople and Cairo, where he learnt Arabic and converted to Islam. Thanks to the patronage of Chevalier, he became an interpreter for the French army in Algeria in 1837. He then served at the direction of Algerian affairs at the ministry of war from 1845, as Councillor of the Government in Algiers from 1860, and as personal interpreter for Napoleon III during the latter's one-month visit to Algeria in 1865.
151. See Michel Levallois, Ismaÿl Urbain, une autre conquête de l'Algérie (Paris, 2000).
152. Anne Levallois (ed.), Les Écrits autobiographiques d'Ismayl Urbain (1812-1884) (Paris, 2005).
153. Schefer, Grande Pensée.
154. Alfred J. Hanna and Kathryn A. Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy (Chapel Hill, 1971).
155. Jean-François Lecaillon, Napoléon III et le Mexique: les illusions d'un grand dessein (Paris, 1994).
156. Michele Cunningham, Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III (Basingstoke and New York, 2001).
157. Alain Gouttman, La Guerre du Mexique (1862-1867): le mirage américain de Napoléon III (Paris, 2008).
158. Michel Chevalier, L'Expédition du Mexique (Paris, 1862), 88.
159. See also Chevalier, Le Mexique (Paris, 1851).
160. Le Mexique ancien et moderne (Paris, 1863).
161. On Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, see Agnes Murphy, The Ideology of French Imperialism, 1871-1881 (Washington, 1948), 103-75.
162. Dan Warshaw, Paul Leroy-Beaulieu and Established Liberalism in France (DeKalb, Ill., 1991), esp. 73-105.
163. on British free trade imperialists, see Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Classical Political Economy, the Empire of Free Trade and Imperialism, 1750-1850 (Cambridge, 1970), esp. 76-129.
164. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, De la Colonisation chez les peuples modernes (Paris, 1874), 608.
165. See 2nd edn (Paris, 1882), 253-4 and 541, for examples of additions that stress the benefits of territorial acquisitions.
166. Djilali Sari, Le Désastre démographique (Algiers, 1982).
167. Julien, Conquête, 453-500.
168. Girardet, L'Idée coloniale, 51-2.
169. Daughton, Empire Divided, 16-18.
170. Marseille, Empire colonial, 69-78.
171. On republican imperial ideology, see Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa (Stanford, 1997).
172. Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Françoise Vergès, La République coloniale: essai sur une utopie (Paris, 2003).
173. Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, La République impériale: politique et racisme d'État (Paris, 2009).
174. Pierre Singaravélou, Professer l'Empire: les sciences coloniales en France sous la Troisième République (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, forthcoming in 2011).