Gestational diabetes: Risks, management, and treatment options

International Journal of Women's Health

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 339-351

  Kim, Catherine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Glucose intolerance; Perinatal complications; Pregnancy

Indexed keywords

GLIBENCLAMIDE; INSULIN; INSULIN ASPART; INSULIN LISPRO; ISOPHANE INSULIN; METFORMIN; TROGLITAZONE;

BEHAVIOR CHANGE; BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING; BREAST FEEDING; CALORIC INTAKE; CESAREAN SECTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIET RESTRICTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FETUS GROWTH; FETUS MONITORING; FETUS WEIGHT; HUMAN; HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOGLYCEMIA; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; INTRAUTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE; LABOR MANAGEMENT; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MACROSOMIA; MENORRHAGIA; NUTRITIONAL COUNSELING; OBESITY; ORAL GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREGNANCY DIABETES MELLITUS; PREMATURE LABOR; PUERPERIUM; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SHOULDER DYSTOCIA; STILLBIRTH; TREATMENT PLANNING;

EID: 78650735916     PISSN: None     EISSN: 11791411     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.2147/IJWH.S13333     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Metzger B, Buchanan T, Coustan D, et al. Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(2):S251-S260.
2. Ferrara A, Kahn H, Quesenberry C, Riley C, Hedderson M. An increase in the incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus: Northern California. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103(3):526-533.
3. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(19):1991-2002.
4. Crowther C, Hiller J, Moss J, et al. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2005; 352(24): 2477-2486.
5. Rowan J, Hague W, Gao W, Battin M, Moore M; MiG Trial Investigators. Metformin versus insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(19):2003-2015.
6. Hadden D. A historical perspective on gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:B3-B4.
7. American Diabetes Association. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2004;27 Suppl 1:S88-S90.
8. ACOG Practice Bulletin. Clinical management guidelines for obstetrician- gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;98(3):525-538.
9. World Health Organization. Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia: A report of WHO/IDF consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006.
10. IADSPG Consensus Panel. International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(3): 676-682.
11. Lawrence J, Contreras R, Chen W, Sacks D. Trends in the prevalence of pre-existing diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus among a racially/ethnically diverse population of pregnant women, 1999-2005. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(3):569-576.
12. O'Sullivan J. Diabetes mellitus after GDM. Diabetes. 1991; 29 Suppl 2: 131-135.
13. ACOG Committee Opinion. Obesity in pregnancy: ACOG Committee Opinion Number 315, 2005 Sep. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106(3): 671-675.
14. Institute of Medicine and National Research Council Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines, editor. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009.
15. Kim S, England L, Wilson H, Bish C, Satten G, Dietz P. Percentage of gestational diabetes mellitus attributable to overweight and obesity. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(6):1047-1052.
16. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study: Preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010;202(3):255.e251-e257.
17. Seely E, Solomon C. Insulin resistance and its potential role in pregnancy- induced hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(6): 2393-2398.
18. Anyaegbunam A, Scarpelli S, Mikhail M. Chronic hypertension in gestational diabetes: Influence on pregnancy outcome. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1995;39(3):167-170.
19. ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins - Obstetrics. ACOG practice bulletin. Management of preterm labor. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2003;82(1):127-135.
20. Sokol R, Blackwell S; American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Practice Bulletins. ACOG practice bulletin: Shoulder dystocia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2003;80(1):87-92.
21. Dumont C, Forin V, Asfazadourian H, Romana C. Function of the upper limb after surgery for obstetric brachial plexus palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2001;83(6):894-900.
22. Metha S, Blackwell S, Bujold E, Solol R. What factors are associated with neonatal injury following shoulder dystocia? J Perinatol. 2006;26(2):85-88.
23. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and Pregnancy Outcome Study: Associations with neonatal anthropometrics. Diabetes. 2009;58(2):453-459.
24. O'Sullivan J, Charles D, Mahan C, Dandrow R. Gestational diabetes and perinatal mortality rate. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1973;116(7):901-904.
25. Girz B, Divon M, Merkatz I. Sudden fetal death in women with wellcontrolled intensively monitored gestational diabetes. J Perinatol. 1992; 12(3):229-233.
26. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hormonal and metabolic factors associated with variations in insulin sensitivity in human pregnancy. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(2):356-360.
27. Landon M, Spong C, Thom E, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment of mild gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(14): 1339-1348.
28. Ferrara A, Weiss N, Hedderson M, et al. Pregnancy plasma glucose levels exceeding the American Diabetes Association thresholds, but below the National Diabetes Data Group thresholds for gestational diabetes mellitus, are related to the risk of neonatal macrosomia, hypoglycaemia, and hyperbilirubinaemia. Diabetologia. 2007;50(2):298-306.
29. Sermer M, Naylor C, Kenshole A, et al. The Toronto Tri-Hospital Gestational Diabetes Project: A preliminary review. Diabetes Care. 1998;21 Suppl 2:833-842.
30. Witkop C, Neale D, Wilson L, Bass E, Nicholson W. Active compared with expectant delivery management in women with gestational diabetes: A systematic review. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;113(1):206-217.
31. Declercq E, Barger M, Cabral H, et al. Maternal outcomes associated with planned primary cesarean births compared with planned vaginal births. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;109(3):669-677.
32. Simpson E, Lawrenson R, Nightingale A, Farmer R. Venous thromboembolism in pregnancy and the puerperium: Incidence and additional risk factors from a London perinatal database. BJOG. 2001;108(1): 56-60.
33. Kennare R, Tucker G, Heard A, Chan A. Risk of adverse outcomes in the next birth after a first cesarean delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;109 (2 Pt 1):270-276.
34. Wall P, Deucy E, Glantz J, Pressman E. Vertical skin incisions and wound complications in the obese parturient. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;102(5 Pt 1):952-956.
35. Wolfe H, Gross T, Sokol R. Determinants of morbidity in obese women delivered by cesarean. Obstet Gynecol. 1988;71(5):691-696.
36. Kjos S, Berkowitz K, Kung B. Prospective delivery of reliably dated term infants of diabetic mothers without determination of fetal lung maturity: Comparison to historical control. J Mat Fetal Neonat Med. 2002;12(6):1-5.
37. Pedersen J. Weight and length at birth in infants of diabetic mothers. Acta Endocrinol. 1954;16(4):330-342.
38. Catalano P, Thomas A, Huston-Presley L, Amini S. Increased fetal adiposity: A very sensitive marker of abnormal in-utero development. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189(6):1698-1704.
39. Catalano P, Kirwan J, Haugel-de Mouzon S, King J. Gestational diabetes and insulin resistance: Role in short- and long-term implications for mother and fetus. J Nutr. 2003;133(5 Suppl 2):S1674-S1683.
40. Dabelea D. The predisposition to obesity and diabetes in offspring of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Care. 2007;30 Suppl 2:S169-S174.
41. Pettitt D, Nelson R, Saad M, Bennett P, Knowler W. Diabetes and obesity in the offspring of Pima Indian women with diabetes during pregnancy. Diabetes Care. 1993;16(1):310-314.
42. Silverman B, Metzger B, Cho N, Loeb C. Impaired glucose tolerance in adolescent offspring of diabetic mothers: Relationship to fetal hyperinsulinism. Diabetes Care. 1995;18(5):611-617.
43. Dabelea D, Mayer-Davis E, Lamichhane A, et al. Association of intrauterine exposure to maternal diabetes and obesity with Type 2 diabetes in youth: The SEARCH case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(7): 1422-1426.
44. Meigs J, Cupples A, Wilson P. Parental transmission of Type 2 diabetes: The Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes. 2000;49(12): 2201-2217.
45. Gillman M, Rifas-Shiman S, Berkey C, Field A, Colditz G. Maternal gestational diabetes, birth weight and adolescent obesity. Pediatrics. 2003;111(3):221-226.
46. Boney C, Verma A, Tucker R, Vohr B. Metabolic syndrome in childhood: Association with birth weight, maternal obesity, and gestational diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics. 2005;115(3):e290-e296.
47. Harris M. Gestatonal diabetes may represent discovery of pre-existing glucose intolerance. Diabetes Care. 1988;11(5):402.
48. Buchanan T, Xiang A, Peters R, et al. Response of pancreatic beta-cells to improved insulin sensitivity in women at high risk for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2000;49(5):782-788.
49. Kim C, Newton K, Knopp R. Gestational diabetes and incidence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(10):1862-1868.
50. Bellamy L, Casas J, Hingorani A, Williams D. Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2009;373(9677):1773-1779.
51. Cheung N, Byth K. Population health significance of gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(7):2005-2009.
52. Carr D, Utzschneider K, Hull R, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with a family history of Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(9): 2078-2083.
53. Shah B, Retnakaran R, Booth G. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in young women following gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(8):1668-1669.
54. Landon M, Thom E, Cpong C; Network MFMU. The NICHD MFMUNetwork randomized clinical trial in progress: Standard therapy vs. no therapy for mild gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2007; 30 Suppl 2:S194-S199.
55. Ellis S, Speroff T, Dittus R, Brown A, Pichert J, Elasy T. Diabetes patient education: A meta-analysis and meta-regression. Patient Educ Couns. 2004;52(1):97-105.
56. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes: Position statement. Diabetes Care. 2010;33 Suppl 1:S11-S61.
57. Magee M, Knopp R, Benedetti T. Metabolic effects of 1200-kcal diet in obese pregnant women with gestational diabetes. Diabetes. 1990;39(2):234-240.
58. Algert S, Shragg P, Hollingsworth D. Moderate caloric restriction in obese women with gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol. 1985;65(4):487-491.
59. The Diabetes in Pregnancy Dilemma. In: Mazze R, Langer O, editors. Medical Nutrition Therapy. Maryland: University Press of America; 2006.
60. Major C, Henry M, de Veciana M, Morgan M. The effects of carbohydrate Restriction in patients with diet-controlled gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;91(4):600-604.
61. Romon M, Nuttens M, Vambergue A, et al. Higher carbohydrate intake is associated with decreased incidence of newborn macrosomia in women with gestational diabetes. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001;101(8):897-902.
62. Moses R, Barker M, Winter M, Petocz P, Brand-Miller J. Can a lowglycemic diet reduce the need for insulin in gestational diabetes mellitus? A randomized trial. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(6):996-1000.
63. Franz M, Bantle J, Beebe C, et al. Evidence-based nutrition principles and recommendations for the treatment and prevention of diabetes and related complications. Diabetes Care. 2003;Suppl 1:S51-S61.
64. Ilic S, Jovanovic L, Pettitt D. Comparison of the effect of saturated and monounsaturated fat on postprandial plasma glucose and insulin concentration in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Perinatol. 1999;16(9):489-495.
65. Langer O, Berkus M, Brustman L, Anyaegbunam A, Mazze R. Rationale for insulin management in gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 1991;40 Suppl 2:186-190.
66. Mikines K, Sonne B, Farrell P, Tronier B, Galbo H. Effect of physical exercise on sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin in humans. Am J Physiol. 1988;254(3 Pt 1):E248-E259.
67. Perseghin G, Price T, Petersen K, et al. Increased glucose transportphosphorylation and muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise training in insulin-resistant subjects. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(18): 1357-1362.
68. ACOG Committee Opinion. Exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;99(1):171-173.
69. Artal R, Catanzaro R, Gavard J, Mostello D, Friganza J. A lifestyle intervention of weight-gain restriction: Diet and exercise in obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007;32(3):596-601.
70. Bung P, Artal R, Khodiguian N, Kjos S. Exercise in gestational diabetes. An optional therapuetic approach? Diabetes. 1991;40 Suppl 2: 182-185.
71. Artal R, Lockwood C, Brown H. Weight gain recommendations in pregnancy and the obesity epidemic. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;115(1): 152-155.
72. Hirsch I. Insulin analogues. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(2):174-183.
73. Nachum Z, Ben-Shlomo I, Weiner E, Shalev E. Twice daily vs four times daily insulin dose regimens for diabetes in pregnancy: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 1999;319(7219):1223-1227.
74. Gabbe S, Graves C. Management of diabetes mellitus complicating pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;102(4):857-868.
75. Langer O, Conway D, Berkus M, Xenakis E, Gonzales O. A comparison of glyburide and insulin in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(16):1134-1138.
76. Evertson L, Gauthier R, Schifrin B, Paul R. Antepartum fetal heart rate testing. I. Evolution of the nonstress test. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1979; 133(1):29-33.
77. Manning F, Platt L, Sipos L. Antepartum fetal evaluation: Development of a fetal biophysical profile. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1980;136(6): 787-795.
78. Freeman R, Anderson G, Dorchester W. A prospective multi-institutional study of antepartum fetal heart rate monitoring. II. Contraction stress test versus nonstress test for primary surveillance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982;143(7):778-781.
79. Weiner C. The relationship between the umbilical artery systolic/ diastolic ratio and umbilical blood gas measurements in specimens obtained by cordocentesis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;162(5): 1198-1202.
80. Ben-Haroush A, Chen R, Hadar E, Hod M, Yogev Y. Accuracy of a single fetal weight estimation at 29-34 weeks in diabetic pregnancies: Can it predict large-for-gestational-age infants at term? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(5):497.e491-e496.
81. Wolfe H, Sokol R, Martier S, Zador I. Maternal obesity: A potential source of error in sonographic prenatal diagnosis. Obstet Gynecol. 1990;76(3 Pt 1):339-342.
82. Lantz M, Chisholm C. The preferred timing of second-trimester obstetric sonography based on maternal body mass index. J Ultrasound Med. 2004;23(8):1019-1022.
83. Conway D, Langer O. Elective delivery of infants with macrosomia in diabetic women: Reduced shoulder dystocia versus increased cesarean delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;178(5):922-925.
84. Flenady V, MacPhail J, Gardener G, et al. Detection and management of decreased fetal movements in Australia and New Zealand: A survey of obstetric practice. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009;49(4):358-363.
85. ACOG Practice Bulletin. Clinical management guidelines for obstetrician-gynecologists: Pregestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105(3):675-685.
86. Kjos S, Buchanan T. Gestational diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(23):1749-1756.
87. ACOG Committee on Obstetric Practice. Postpartum screening for abnormal glucose tolerance in women who had gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;113(6):1419-1421.
88. Ferrara A, Peng T, Kim C. Trends in postpartum diabetes screening and subsequent diabetes and impaired glucose regulation among women with histories of gestational diabetes mellitus: a TRIAD study. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(2):269-274.
89. American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2010;33 Suppl 1:S62-S69.
90. Cowie C, Rust K, Byrd-Holt D, et al. Prevalence of diabetes and highrisk for diabetes using A1c criteria in the US population in 1988-2006. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(3):562-568.
91. Nelson A, Le M, Musherraf Z, Vanberckelaer A. Intermediate-term glucose tolerance in women with a history of gestational diabetes: Natural history and potential associations with breastfeeding and contraception. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;198(6):699.e1-e7.
92. Gunderson E, Jacobs D Jr, Chaing V, et al. Duration of lactation and incidence of the metabolic syndrome in women of reproductive age according to gestational diabetes mellitus status: A 20-year prospective study in CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults). Diabetes. 2010;59(2):495-504.
93. Gunderson E. Breast-feeding and diabetes: Long-term impact on mothers and their infants. Curr Diab Rep. 2008;8(4):279-286.
94. Steube A. Breastfeeding and diabetes - benefits and special needs. Diabetes Voice. 2007;52(1):26-29.
95. Labbok M, Hight-Laukaran V, Peterson A, Fletcher V, von Hertzen H, van Look P. Multicenter study of the Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM): I. Efficacy, duration, and implications for clinical application. Contraception. 1997;55(6):327-336.
96. Teal S. Contraception for women with chronic medical conditions. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2007;34(1):113-126.
97. Damm P, Mathiesen E, Petersen K, Kjos S. Contraception after gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007;30 Suppl 2:S236-S241.
98. Rogovskaya S, Rivera R, Grimes D, et al. Effect of a levonorgestrel intrauterine system on women with Type 1 diabetes: A randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105(4):811-815.
99. Kieffer E, Sinco B, Kim C. Health behaviors in women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(8):1788-1793.
100. Division of Nutrition PA, and Obesity, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Healthy Pregnant or Postpartum Women. 2008. Available from:://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/pregnancy.html. Accessed 2010 Aug 1.
101. Ratner R, Christophi C, Metzger B, et al. Prevention of diabetes in women with a history of gestational diabetes; effects of metformin and lifestyle interventions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(12):4774-4779.
102. Lovelady C, Nommsen-Rivers L, McCrory M, Dewey K. Effects of exercise on plasma lipids and metabolism of lactating women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27(1):22-28.
103. Lovelady C, Garner K, Moreno K, Williams J. The effect of weight loss in overweight, lactating women on the growth of their infants. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(7):449-453.
104. O'Toole M, Sawicki M, Artal R. Structured diet and physical activity prevent postpartum weight retention. J Women's Health. 2003;12(10): 991-998.
105. Buchanan T, Xiang A, Peters R, et al. Preservation of pancreatic betacell function and prevention of Type 2 diabetes by pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in high-risk Hispanic women. Diabetes. 2002;51(9):2796-2803.