Picture perfect: Life in the age of the photo op

Picture Perfect: Life in the Age of the Photo Op (New Edition)

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages

  Adatto, Kiku ^a  

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References (284)

1. CNN News Transcripts, "Live from the Headlines 19:00,"May 1, 2003, transcript #050100CN.V94, http://www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed September 12, 2005).
2. Keith Olbermann and ChrisMatthews, MSNBC News, "Countdown: Iraq 20:00," May 1, 2003, News, Domestic, http://www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed February 20, 2005); FOX News Network Transcripts, "The Big Story with John Gibson (17:14)," May 1, 2003, transcript #050102cb.263, http://www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed March 8, 2005); CNN News Transcripts, "CNN Live Event/Special 21:00,"May 1, 2003, transcript #050105CN.V54, http:www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed February 20, 2005).
3. Elisabeth Bumiller, "Keepers of Bush Image Lift Stagecraft to New Heights," New York Times, May 16, 2003, A1.
4. A follow-up article on the "Mission Accomplished" banner in the New York Times quotes Bush saying, "The 'Mission Accomplished' sign, of course, was put up by the members of the USS Abraham Lincoln, saying that their mission was accomplished. . . . I know it was attributed somehow to some ingenious advance man from my staff. They weren't that ingenious, by the way." After the press conference, however, White House press secretary Scott McClellan clarified the president's statement, noting that the banner "was suggested by those on the ship. . . . They asked us to do the production of the banner, and we did. They're the ones who put it up." The Times notes that the man responsible for the banner, former ABC producer Scott Sforza (now with the White House communication's office), was known for producing sophisticated backdrops that appear behind Mr. Bush to reinforce his message of the day. Byline by the New York Times, "Bush Steps Away from Victory Banner," October 29, 2003, 8 (accessed January 29, 2005). See also Bumiller, "Keepers of Bush Image Lift Stagecraft to New Heights." For a report on how the USS Abraham Lincoln was turned around when the coast of San Diego was visible, see Dana Milbank, "Explanation for Bush's Carrier Landing Altered," Washington Post, May 7, 2003, A20 (accessed January 29, 2005).
5. The account of Joseph Darby and quotations are drawn from Wil S. Hylton, "Prisoner of Conscience," GQ, September 2006, http://men.style.com/gq (accessed July 11, 2007), and Joseph Darby, interview byMichele Norris, "Abu GhraibWhistle Blower Speaks Out," All Things Considered, National Public Radio, August 15, 2006, http://www.npr.org (accessed August 28, 2006).
6. Seymour M. Hersh, "Torture at Abu Ghraib; American Soldiers Brutalized Iraqis. How Far Up Does the Responsibility Go?" New Yorker, May 10, 2004, 2.
7. Joseph Darby, interview by Wil S. Hylton, "Prisoner of Conscience."
8. Rory Kennedy, "The Ghosts of Abu Ghraib," HBO, February 22, 2007. Quoted in Alessandra Stanley, "Abu Ghraib and Its Multiple Failures," New York Times, February 22, 2007, The Arts/Cultural Desk, Section E, 1.
9. Aileen McCabe, "Weapons ofMass Photography," Ottawa Citizen,May 17, 2004, http://www.canwestglobal.com/ (accessed March 8, 2005).
10. Accounts of the exact time of the execution differ.
11. John F. Burns and James Glanz, "Iraq to Examine Abusive Conduct toward Hussein," New York Times, January 3, 2007, Foreign Desk, Section A, 1.
12. Office of the Press Secretary, "President Bush's Statement on Execution of Saddam Hussein," December 2006, http://www.whitehouse.gov (accessed June 12, 2007).
13. CNN Transcripts, "Anderson Cooper 360 Degree 11:00 PM EST," January 22, 2007, http://www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed March 10, 2007).
14. Interview with the author, March 12, 1990.
15. Norman B. Judd to Abraham Lincoln, June 6, 1860, quoted in Harold Holzer, Gabor S. Boritt, and Mark E. Neely Jr., The Lincoln Image: Abraham Lincoln and the Popular Print (New York: Scribner Press, 1984), 67.
16. Holzer, Boritt, and Neely, The Lincoln Image, 11-14.
17. David E. Sanger and Joseph Kahn, "Chinese Leader Gives Bush a Mixed Message," New York Times, November 21, 2005, Foreign Desk, Section A, 1.
18. Byron Calame, "When the Newspaper Is the News," New York Times, December 4, 2005, 12.
19. I watched the videotape of George Allen's "macaca" remark on YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/ (accessed September 21, 2006).My account of the incident is drawn from S. R. Sidrath, "I AmMacaca,"Washington Post, November 12, 2006, Outlook, B02 (accessed January 8, 2007), and Kate Zernike, "Macaca," New York Times, December 24, 2006, Section 4, Column 2, Week in Review Desk, 4 (accessed January 8, 2007).
20. Paul Farhi, "Blundering Pols Find Their Oops on Endless Loop of Internet Sites," Washington Post, November 3, 2006, Style, C01.
21. Jodi Wilgoren, "Kerry on Hunting Photo-Op to Help Image," New York Times, October 22, 2004, Section A, Column 1, National Desk, 18.
22. Patrick Healy, "Campaign 2004: Kerry, Edwards Seek Edge in Wis. with Focus on Jobs," Boston Globe, February 17, 2004, National/Foreign, A1 (accessed May 5, 2005). Wesley Clark's quotation is from Judy Keen, "Good Iraq PR Tend to Fade Fast for President," USA Today, December 1, 2003, 10A (accessed April 29, 2005).
23. Richard A. Oppel Jr. and David S. Cloud, "U.S. Uses Iraq Insurgent's Own Video to Mock Him," New York Times, May 5, 2006, Foreign Desk, Section A, 1.
24. I had the opportunity to view one network's unedited news videotapes of the toppling of the Saddam statue.
25. "Bush TV Ad Pulled over Doctored Crowd Scene," MediaGuardian.co.uk, Friday, October 29, 2004 (accessed April 15,2005).
26. Carla Marinucci, "Doctored Kerry Photo Brings Anger, Threat of Suit," San Francisco Chronicle, February 20, 2004, A4, http://www.sfgate.com (accessed February 20, 2004).
27. Alex Kuczinski, "On CBS News, Some of What You See Isn't There," New York Times, January 12, 2000, A1.
28. James Barron with Glen Collins, Jennifer Steinhauer, and Linda Lee, "Boldface Names," New York Times, January 8, 2002, Late Edition, Metropolitan Desk, 2. Additional commentary byMaureen Dowd, "That's Showbiz, Folks-and Television News," Times Union, January 9, 2002, A9.
29. John Higgins, "CBS Puts Couric on Photoshop Diet," The Business of Television, Broadcasting and Cable, August 29, 2006, http://www.broadcastingcable.com (accessed September 1, 2006), and Margery Regan, "Shrinking Katie Says It All about TV News," Boston Herald, August 31, 2006, 3 (accessed April 27, 2007).
30. Jonathan D. Glater, "Martha Stewart Gets New Body in Newsweek," New York Times, March 3, 2005, C4.
31. Katie Betts, "TheManWhoMakes the Pictures Perfect," New York Times, February 2, 2003, Style Desk, 1.
32. Susan Sachs, "Sarkozy's Physique Gets a Tweak from Friends in High Places; French President's Cozy Relationship with Powerful Media Barons Has Journalists Up in Arms," Globe and Mail (Canada), August 24, 2007, A14 (accessed September 5, 2007).
33. John Lichfield, "Magazine Airbrushes Sarkozy's 'Love Handles,' " The Independent (London), August 23, 2007, 22 (accessed September 5, 2007).
34. Anne Kingston, "Say Cheese, and Look Slimmer," Maclean's, May 29, 2006, Bazaar, 54.
35. Jennifer Alsever, "In the Computer Dating Fame, Room for a Coach," New York Times, March 11, 2007, Money and Business/Financial Desk, 5, http://www.nytimes.-com (accessed May 28, 2007).
36. Peter Wayner, "Looking Perfect, One Pixel at a Time," New York Times, April 26, 2007, Section C, Business/Financial Desk, 7, http://www.nytimes.com (accessedMay 28, 2007).
37. Megan Lehmann, "Weight and See-Actress Touchy about Retouch," New York Post, February 17, 2003, 27, http://www.nypost.com (accessed May 28, 2007).
38. Andrew Adam Newman, "3 Magazines Are Accused of Retouching Celebrity Photos to Excess," New York Times, May 28, 2007, C4.
39. This account of high school yearbooks and the quotations from photographers is drawn from Sandra Ladez Gerdes, "Digital Retouching Enhances Teens' Senior Photos," Seattle Times, May 9, 2004, Northwest Life, L2, http://www.seattletimes.newsource.com (accessed May 29, 2007).
40. Richard Rushfield, "Lonelygirl? Not Any Longer; The 19-Year-Old Actress Whose Fictional Confessions as 'Bree' Captivated Web Watchers Encounters the Media Whirlwind," Los Angeles Times, September 16, 2006, Calendar Desk, Part E, 1.
41. Karen Reichert, "Should Videotaping Be Restricted during Labor and Birth?" American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing 26 (March/April 2001): 62.
42. Karen Springen, "No Candid Camera," Newsweek, February 20, 2006, 16.
43. Don Gifford, "What We See When We Get to the Videotape," New York Times, May 20, 1990, H31.
44. Meghan McEwen, "Is Wedding Photojournalism a Fad?" WedPix-Magazine, July/August 2006, 1, http://www.wedpix.com/articles/002/wedding-photojournalism-fad/ (accessed July 24, 2006).
45. Jon Weinbach, "Bride Gone Wild," Wall Street Journal, June 2, 2006, Weekend Journal, W1.
46. Interview with Beth Perlman, May 27, 1991.
47. "Live Free or Die," JohnMcCain.com, http://www.johnmccain.com/Informing/Multimedia/Player.aspx?guid=f12227b8-b36b-458b-a4e1-0589c257eae0 (accessed July 11, 2007).
48. "Draft Fred Thompson for President '08," http://www.fred08.com (accessed June 6, 2007).
49. Office of the Press Secretary, "Remarks by the President upon Arrival; The South Lawn," September 16, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov (accessed April 15, 2005).
50. "Bush: Bin Laden 'Prime Suspect,' " CNN.com, September 17, 2001, http:// www.cnn.com (accessed July 11, 2007).
51. Interview with Vice President Dick Cheney, Meet the Press, NBC, Transcript for March 16, 2003.
52. Jane Mayer, "Whatever It Takes: The Politics of the Man Behind '24,' " New Yorker, February 19, 2007, 72.
53. Martin Miller, " '24' Gets a Lesson in Torture from the Experts," Los Angeles Times, February 13, 2007, Calendar Desk, Part E, 1.
54. Rory Kennedy, "Ghosts of Abu Ghraib," HBO, February 22, 2007. Quoted in Tom Shales, " 'Ghosts of Abu Ghraib': Fearlessly Facing the Shame," Washington Post, February 22, 2007, Style, C1.
55. David Shoumacher, interview with author, 1991.
56. This account and the quotes are drawn from Ian Fisher, "Now as Before, Pope Relies on Media for His Message," New York Times, March 4, 2005, Section A, Foreign Desk, 9.
57. Andrew Sullivan, "Superstar," New Republic, April 18, 2005, Washington Diarist, 46.
58. Elaine Sciolino, "French Nun Says Church to Rule on Cure by John Paul II," New York Times, March 31, 2007, Section A, Foreign Desk, 3.
59. John King as quoted in CNN Transcripts, "Live from the Headlines 19:00,"May 1, 2003, transcript #050100CN.V94, http://www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed September 12, 2005).
60. ABC's World News Tonight, May 1, 2004; Terry Moran reporting on ABC's World News Tonight.
61. Beaumont Newhall, The Daguerreotype in America (New York: Dover, 1976),
62. I am indebted to Newhall for the material about Daguerre from which I drew my account.
63. William Henry Fox Talbot, an Englishman, independently invented the photograph using a different process in the 1830s. For accounts of others involved in the invention of the photograph, see Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography (Boston: Little, Brown, 1986) and Jean-Claude Lemagny and André Rouillé, A History of Photography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
64. Richard Rudisill, Mirror Image: The Influence of the Daguerreotype on American Society (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971), 57.
65. Oliver Wendell Holmes, "The Stereoscope and the Stereograph," in Photography: Essays and Images, ed. Beaumont Newhall (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1980), 54.
66. Rudisill, Mirror Image, 54.
67. Harold Francis Pfister, Facing the Light (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1978), 140.
68. Robert A. Sobieszek and Odette M. Appel, The Spirit of Fact: The Daguerreotypes of Southworth and Hawes, 1843-1862 (New York: Dover, 1976), ix.
69. Marcus Aurelius Root, The Camera and the Pencil (1864; repr., Pawlet, VT:Helios, 1971), 143.
70. Newhall, The Daguerreotype in America, 44.
71. Pfister, Facing the Light, 140; Newhall, The Daguerreotype in America, 78.
72. Mark Twain, Life on the Mississippi (1883; repr., New York: Penguin Books, 1986), 278.
73. Max Kozloff, Photography and Fascination (Danbury, NH: Addison House, 1979), 79.
74. Stephen Hess andMilton Kaplan, The Ungentlemanly Art: A History of American Political Cartoons (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 3. Thomas C. Leonard notes that this famous remark by Tweed may be apocryphal, but provides an astute analysis of the power of pictures in The Power of the Press (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 108.
75. Neal Gabler, Life the Movie: How Entertainment Conquered Reality (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 72. According to Gabler the quote is cited in the Illustrated Daily News, June 26, 1919.
76. Robert Sklar,Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of AmericanMovies (New York: Vintage, 1975), 3 and 22.
77. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 149-52.
78. Life, November 23, 1936, 3.
79. This account and the quotations are drawn from the historical write-up on the U.S. Senate's "Historical Minutes, 1941-1963: Kefauver Crime Committee Launched," http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Kefauver_Crime_Committee_Launched.htm (accessed May 31, 2007), and from William Howard Moore, The Kefauver Committee and the Politics of Crime, 1950-1952 (Columbia: University ofMissouri Press, 1974).
80. U.S. Senate's "Historical Minutes, 1941-1963: Kefauver Crime Committee Launched."
81. Vicki Goldberg, The Power of Photography: How Photographs Changed Our Lives (New York: Abbeville Press, 1991), 223.
82. Jeffrey Ruoff, An American Family: A Televised Life (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), xxv. Quoted in Susan Murray, "I Think We Need a New Name for It," in Reality TV: Remaking Television Culture, ed. Susan Murray and Laurie Ouellette (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 40-41.
83. "The Company," C-SPAN.org, http://www.cspan.org/about/company/index.asp?code=COMPANY (accessed July 6, 2007).
84. Gabler, Life the Movie, 80-81.
85. For an excellent study of how the Times came to embrace photography, see Jesse Schumer, "All the Photos Fit to Print: The Struggle and Success of Front-Page Photojournalism in The New York Times" (senior thesis in Social Studies, Harvard University, 2006).
86. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, ed. Quentin Skinner and Russell Price (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 63.
87. Boston Globe, May 1, 1991.
88. The account of Spielberg's visit was provided by Congressman Mike Synar of Oklahoma. Interview with author, May 10, 1991.
89. A Democratic adviser who wished to remain anonymous provided this quotation and the information about the Democrats' attention to camera placement during the Bork hearings. Interview with author, October 24, 1991.
90. Time, January 27, 1992, 21.
91. Reported by Jackie Judd on ABC (October 11, 1988) and Ken Bode on NBC (October 11, 1988).
92. Rod Slemmons, Like a One-Eyed Cat: Photographs of Lee Friedlander (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1989), 12.
93. Quoted in Jonathan Green, American Photography (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1984), 99.
94. Patrick S. Smith, AndyWarhol's Art and Films (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986), 12.
95. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1958), 10.
96. Marcia Tucker, "Mechanisms of Exclusion and Relation: Identity," in Discourses: Conversations in Postmodern Art and Culture, ed. Russell Ferguson et al. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), 92.
97. Holmes, "The Stereoscope and the Stereograph," in Newhall, Photography: Essays and Images, 60.
98. Thomas L. Johnson and Philip C. Dunn, A True Likeness: The Black South of Richard Samuel Roberts, 1920-1936 (Columbia, SC: B. Clark; Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1986), 6.
99. This account is drawn from Paul Andrews, "Keeping Watch Now Goes Both Ways," Seattle Times, April 14, 2005, Business, E1.
100. Michael. B. Farrell, "Who's TapingWhom?" Christian Science Monitor, September 15, 2004, Features, 16.
101. Quotes and incident reported in Jim Dwyer, "Videos Challenge Hundreds of Convention Arrests" New York Times, April 12, 2005, Section A, Metropolitan Desk, 1.
102. Tim O'Brien, "The Blog House: A Year Ago, Katrina Revealed Power of the Net," Star Tribune (Minneapolis), September 2, 2006, News, 21A.
103. Thomas Doherty, "No Longer Home Movies," Chronicle of Higher Education, February 6, 2005, B11-12.
104. Figures are for Democratic and Republican candidates appearing on ABC, CBS, and NBC weekday evening newscasts from Labor Day to Election Day, 1968 and 1988 (over 280 newscasts in all). Since the networks did not offer Saturday and Sunday evening newscasts during the periods studied, weekend newscasts are omitted to ensure comparability. The videotapes from 1968 were from the Vanderbilt University archives of television news, and the 1988 tapes were recorded by the media services of Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government. All quotations from the newscasts, unless otherwise attributed, come from this sample.
105. For an excellent account of the growing role of political consultants and media advisers in American politics, see Larry Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants (New York: Basic Books, 1981).
106. Michael Deaver, a public-relations expert in charge of Reagan's media, offered an account of his work in his book Behind the Scenes: In Which the Author Talks about Ronald and Nancy Reagan . . . and Himself (New York: William Morrow, 1987). Accounts of Deaver's role can also be found in Martin Schram, The Great American Video Game: Presidential Politics in the Television Age (New York: William Morrow, 1987), andMark Hertsgaard, On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1988).
107. Don Oliver, interview with author, May 9, 1991.
108. David Schoumacher, interview with author, January 27, 1991.
109. Frank Shakespeare, interview with author, January 14, 1991.
110. The quotations from Roger Mudd and the political consultant are from Lee Dembart, "A Mudd Report on Candidates Rejected by Cronkite Program," New York Times, June 8, 1976, 47.
111. Roger Mudd, interview with author, December 2, 1991.
112. Jill Rosenbaum, interview with author, January 9, 1991.
113. Tom Bettag, interview with author, April 17, 1991.
114. Susan Zirinsky, interview with author, May 13, 1991.
115. Leonard Garment, interview with author, February 5, 1991.
116. Joseph Napolitan, interview with author, January 28, 1991.
117. Bob Schieffer, interview with author, January 9, 1991.
118. Jeff Greenfield, interview with author, March 9, 1991.
119. On the role of political ads in the 1968 and earlier campaigns, see Edwin Diamond and Stephen Bates, The Spot: The Rise of Political Advertising on Television (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Packaging the Presidency: A History and Criticism of Presidential Campaign Advertising (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984).
120. Joseph Napolitan, interview with author, January 28, 1991.
121. Frank Shakespeare, interview with author, January 14, 1991.
122. Roger Ailes, interview with author, July 15, 1991.
123. Jill Rosenbaum, interview with author, January 9, 1991.
124. Andy Franklin, interview with author, January 8, 1991.
125. Brian Healy, interview with author, January 9, 1991.
126. Sanford Socolow, interview with author, December 1989.
127. Ted Koppel, interview with author, February 20, 1991.
128. Reuven Frank, interview with author, May 15, 1991.
129. Quoted in Randall Rothenberg, "Controversy in Commercials Used to Gain Extra Publicity," New York Times, January 8, 1990, D8.
130. Quoted in "Rift over Campaign Films," New York Times, August 11, 1988, D19.
131. Bill Crawford, interview with author, April 17, 1991.
132. Quoted in Rothenberg, "Controversy in Commercials."
133. Ted Koppel, interview with author, February 20, 1991.
134. Time, October 3, 1988, 18.
135. John Sasso, interview with author, March 9, 1991.
136. Roger Ailes, discussion, the Joan Shorenstein Barone Center, Harvard University, November 28, 1990.
137. Walter Cronkite, interview with author, May 28. 1991.
138. David Broder, interview with author, February 20, 1991.
139. The source wished to remain anonymous. Interview with author, 1991.
140. Roger Ailes, in Campaign for President: The Managers Look at '88, ed. David R. Runkel (Dover, MA: Auburn House, 1989), 136.
141. Andrew Savitz, interview with author, February 23, 1991.
142. John Sasso, interview with author, March 9, 1991.
143. Tim Russert and Bill Wheatley, interview with author, January 8, 1991.
144. Richard Salant, interview with author, April 6, 1991.
145. Kathryn Murphy, interview with author, May 1989.
146. Dayton Duncan, interview with author, May 1989.
147. The Stahl incident is related in Schram, The Great American Video Game, 26.
148. Bill Wheatley, interview with author, April 19, 1991.
149. Bill Wheatley, interview with author, January 8, 1991.
150. Bob Schieffer, interview with author, January 9, 1991.
151. Ted Koppel, interview with author, February 20, 1991.
152. Sanford Socolow, interview with author, June 4, 1991.
153. Walter Cronkite, interview with author. May 28, 1991.
154. Shad Northshield, interview with author, April 22, 1991.
155. Tom Bettag, interview with author, April 17, 1991.
156. Susan Zirinksy, interview with author, May 13, 1991.
157. Dan Rather, interview with author, September 23, 1991.
158. Walter Cronkite, interview with author, May 28, 1991.
159. Don Hewitt, interview with author, April 22, 1991.
160. Thomas Dwight to Theodore Sedgwick, February 7, 1789, quoted in David Hacket Fischer, The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965), 91.
161. Fisher Ames to Theodore Dwight, March 19, 1801, quoted in ibid., 135.
162. Samuel Henshaw to Theodore Sedgwick, April 15, 1789, quoted in ibid., 133-34.
163. Gil Troy, See How They Run: The Changing Role of the Presidential Candidate (New York: Free Press, 1991), 14, and generally, 7-19.
164. See Becky M. Nicolaides, "Radio Electioneering in the American Presidential Campaigns of 1932 and 1936," Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television 8 (1988): 115-38.
165. see also Erik Barnouw, A History of Broadcasting in the United States, 3 vols. (1966-70); The Golden Web, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 51.
166. The Golden Web, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 51.
167. New York Times, June 28, 1936, quoted in Nicolaides, "Radio Electioneering," 130.
168. Sevareid, CBS Evening News, October 11, 1968.
169. New York Times, June 28, 1936, quoted in Nicolaides, "Radio Electioneering," 131.
170. Quoted in Troy, See How They Run, 170.
171. Thomas C. Leonard, The Power of the Press: The Birth of American Political Reporting (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 102.
172. Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 93.
173. Neil Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History: The Half-Tone Effect," in New Directions in American Intellectual History, ed. John Higham and Paul K. Conkin (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), 196-211.
174. Leonard, The Power of the Press, 100.
175. Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History," 203.
176. Walter Cronkite, Theodore H. White Lecture, November 15, 1990 (Cambridge, MA: The Joan Shorenstein Barone Center, Harvard University, 1990), 23-24.
177. Daniel Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (1961; repr., New York: Atheneum, 1987), 133. Wallace quoted in John Bainbridge, Little Wonder; or, The Reader's Digest and How It Grew (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1945), 36.
178. Boorstin, The Image, 133-34.
179. Bainbridge, Little Wonder, 53.
180. Quoted in Irving Howe, The Idea of the Modern in Literature and the Arts (New York: Horizon Press, 1967), 20.
181. Quoted in Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 3-4.
182. Quoted in Troy, See How They Run, 130.
183. Quoted in Nicolaides, "Radio Electioneering," 121.
184. Walter Lippmann, Drift andMastery: An Attempt to Diagnose the Current Unrest (1914; repr., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1961), 53.
185. Advertisement in Life, December 28, 1936, 73.
186. Reuven Frank, Out of Thin Air: An Insider's History of Network News (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 183-84.
187. Dick Salant, CBS News Standards (New York: CBS, internal document, April 14, 1976), 38.
188. Charles Quinn, interview with author, January 10, 1991.
189. Don Hewitt, interview with author, April 22, 1991.
190. Walter Cronkite, interview with author, May 28, 1991.
191. Theodore White, The Making of the President, 1960 (New York: Atheneum, 1961), 329.
192. Boorstin, The Image, 41.
193. Richard Nixon, Six Crises (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), 422.
194. Frank Shakespeare, interview with author, January 14, 1991.
195. Russ Bensley, interview with author, January 25, 1991.
196. John Hart, interview with author, March 12, 1990.
197. Timothy Crouse, The Boys on the Bus (New York: Ballantine Books, 1973), 149-50.
198. Michael Deaver, interviewed by Bill Moyers, The Public Mind, "Illusions of News," PBS (New York: Journal Graphic Inc., November 22, 1989), 5.
199. Quoted inMartin Schram, The Great American Video Game (New York:William Morrow, 1987), 33.
200. Quoted in Peter J. Boyer, Who Killed CBS?: The Undoing of America's Number One News Network (New York: Random House, 1988), 15.
201. Edwin Diamond, "Stay Tuned for Television News," New York Magazine, March 16, 1987, 30-33. On the changes in the economics of network news, see Boyer, Who Killed CBS? Ken Auletta, Three Blind Mice: How the TV Networks Lost Their Way (New York: Random House, 1991).
202. Ben Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983)
203. Murrow is quoted in Robert MacNeil, The People Machine: The Influence of Television on American Politics (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), 18.
204. Shad Northshield, interview with author, April 22, 1991.
205. John Ellis, interview with author, March 6, 1991.
206. Boyer, Who Killed CBS?, 141.
207. Bob Schieffer, "The New Politics: Some Basic Questions," Society of Professional Journalists Fellowship Lecture, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 5, 1990, 14.
208. Michael Deaver, interviewed by Bill Moyers, "Illusions of News," 2.
209. Roger Ailes, interview with author, July 15, 1991.
210. Boyer, Who Killed CBS?, 134.
211. Moyers, "Illusions of News," 4.
212. Lesley Stahl, interview with Bill Moyers, "Illusions of News," 2.
213. Thomas B. Rosenstiel, "TV Political Coverage-Timing, Image, Doughnuts," Los Angeles Times, October 23, 1988, 15.
214. Susan Zirinsky, interview with author, May 13, 1991.
215. Schram, The Great American Video Game, 55.
216. Susan Zirinsky, interview with author, May 13, 1991.
217. Shad Northshield, interview with author, April 22, 1991.
218. Frank Shakespeare, interview with author, January 14, 1991.
219. Sanford Socolow, interview with author, December 1989.
220. Tom Bettag, interview with author, April 17, 1991.
221. Walter Cronkite, interview with author, May 18, 1991.
222. See Renee Loth, "ABC Says It Will Drop 'Sound-Bite' Coverage," Boston Globe, September 11, 1992, 13, and "CBS Vows to Serve Up Chewier Sound Bites," TV Guide, July 18, 1992, 25.
223. New York Times, July 13, 1992, D14.
224. The general election statistic for 1992 is from S. Robert Lichter, "Campaign '92 Project," Center forMedia and Public Affairs,Washington, DC, 1992. The 2004 general election statistic is from a report title, "Broadcast News Coverage of Campaign 2004: September 7-October 1, 2004" by the Center for Media and Public Affairs in Cooperation with Media Tenor, http://www.cmpa.com/documents/04.10.20.ElectionWatch.pdf (accessed September 26, 2007).
225. Julia R. Fox, Glory Koloen, and Volkan Sahin, "No Joke: A Comparison of Substance in The Daily Show with Jon Stewart and Broadcast Network Television Coverage of the 2004 Presidential Election Campaign," forthcoming Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 2007.
226. Boorstin, The Image, 44, 38.
227. Robert Campbell, "Fabulous Fakery," Boston Globe, February 27, 1990, 57, 59.
228. I did a systematic analysis of all front-page photographs from the New York Times of the Democratic and Republican presidential campaigns from the date of the first Democratic or Republican convention through Election Day from 1968 to 2000. I used a ProQuest search of the historical New York Times to obtain a copy of every front page. I analyzed over 430 front-page photographs in all. The Times ran on average about fifty photographs per campaign during the period I analyzed. ProQuest did not include the 2004 campaign at the time I was writing this book, so I drew on a photographic file I kept of the campaign, which focused on the new image-conscious photographs, and did not include every front-page photo.
229. During the 1968 campaign, only two front-page photographers show a photographer in the frame, and in both cases it is implied that it is a supporter of the candidate. On August 26, 1968, a photograph of Senator Eugene McCarthy at a Democratic preconvention rally shows a supporter taking a picture; later President Lyndon Johnson speaks to members of his audience with a supporter taking a picture. The Times has a TV image of Johnson on the front page on November 1, 1968, when he announces a bombing halt and the beginning of talks with the Vietnamese. In 1984, there is one front-page photo of Reagan with someone taking a picture.
230. Sam Donaldson, "Foreword," in Choose Me: Portraits of a Presidential Race, photographs by Arthur Grace (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 1989), 12.
231. A September 11, 1992, photograph of Clinton with lights and television cameras in the frame is captioned, "Gov. Bill Clinton giving a television interview yesterday from his mansion in Little, Rock, Ark., in an effort to control the campaign coverage," A31.
232. Photograph by Guido Bergmann/Agence France-Press-Getty Images in the New York Times, June 8, 2007, A1.
233. Don Terry, "Candidates and Issues Stir Small-Town Frenzy," New York Times, July 22, 1992, A14.
234. Gwen Ifill, "Clinton Finds Time to Take on GOP," New York Times, July 20, 1992, A10.
235. Richard L. Berke, "Playing Diplomat on Television," New York Times, July 29, 1992, A12.
236. New York Times, above-the-fold photograph by Stephen Crowley, September 20, 2000.
237. Richard L. Berke and Kevin Sack, "In Debate 2, Microscope Focuses on Gore," New York Times, October 11, 2000, 1.
238. Stephen Crowley photograph, "Waiting for Clinton," New York Times, April 1, 1997, National Report, A16.
239. Amy Toensing, "House Freshmen Say, 'Cheese,' " New York Times, November 17, 1996, National Report, 22.
240. "The Shadow Old-Time Mystery Radio Show," MysteryNet.com, http://www.mysterynet.com/shadow/ (accessed June 6, 2007).
241. Quoted in Jonathan Green, American Photography: A Critical History 1945 to the Present (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1984), 99.
242. Rod Slemmons, Like a One-Eyed Cat: Photographs by Lee Friedlander, 1956- 1987 (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1989), 117.
243. Barbara Norfleet, interview with author, May 6, 1991.
244. Quoted in Els Barents, "Introduction," in Cindy Sherman (Amsterdam: Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, 1982), 8.
245. John D. Callaway, Judith A. Mayotte, and Elizabeth Altick McCarthy, Campaigning on Cue (Chicago: University of Chicago,William Benton Fellowships Program in Broadcast Journalism, 1988), 85.
246. Diane Arbus, Diane Arbus (New York: Aperture, 1972), 1-2.
247. Lewis Baltz, "American Photography in the 1970s," in American Images: Photography 1945-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985), 161.
248. Green, American Photography, 112, 113.
249. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 52-53.
250. Quoted in John Szarkowski, Winogrand (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1988), 34.
251. All of the movie quotations in this book are from viewing the films, not from reading the scripts.
252. An article by Todd Gitlin also discusses A Face in the Crowd and other movies about television, exploring the question of how movies gradually came to terms with the powerful presence of television. See Gitlin, "Down the Tubes," in Seeing through Movies, ed. Mark Crispin Miller (New York: Pantheon, 1990), 14-48.
253. Patrick S. Smith, AndyWarhol's Art and Films (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986), 114.
254. Marcus Aurelius Root, The Camera and the Pencil (1864; repr., Pawlet, VT: Helios, 1971), 143.
255. Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963), 327-28.
256. My analysis of the heroes of American movies is based on viewing all the topten grossing movies (based on figures gathered by Variety and Worldwide Box Office (http://worldwideboxoffice.com) from 1968 to 1992 and a selection of top-ten movies from 1992 to 2007. I also viewed critically acclaimed movies from these (and earlier) periods and a sample of fifty of the top movies from the period 1930 to 1968, some 350 films in all. All quotations in the text are drawn from viewing the movies and not from shooting scripts.
257. Iam indebted to Robert B. Bly's excellent study, A Certain Tendency of the Hollywood Cinema, 1930-1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), for the term reluctant hero.
258. For an intriguing study of the changes in American western movies, see Will Wright, Six Guns and Society: A Structural Study of the Western (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
259. Stephen Farber, "Coppola and the Godfather," Sight and Sound 41 (1972): 220.
260. Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981), 67-71, 75.
261. The photograph was featured on the cover of the April 1985 issue of National Geographic and in a one-hour National Geographic Explorer documentary on MSNBC.
262. Roy Emerson Stryker, head of the Farm Security Administration, immediately recognized the power of Dorothea Lange's photograph and referred to "Migrant Mother" as the "ultimate" photograph of the Depression era. He felt that Lange never surpassed this photograph. Of "Migrant Mother" he declared, "She is immortal." Roy Emerson Stryker, In This Proud Land: 1935-1943, as Seen in the FSA Photographs (New York: New York Graphic Society, 1975).
263. This account is drawn from Geoffrey Dunn, "Photographic License," New York Times Magazine, 2002, http://www.newtimes-slo.com/archives/cov_stories-2002/cov_01172002.html (accessed May 12, 2006).
264. This quote by Dorothea Lange is cited in Giridhar Khasnis, "Two Women and a Photograph," The Hindu: Online Edition of India's National Newspaper, April 30, 2006, http://www.hindu.com/mag/2006/04/30/stories/2006043000380500.htm (accessed September 17, 2006).
265. The story of the stamp and its unveiling was reported in Lisa Millegan, "Modestan Stamps Her Approval, Woman Lobbied For Mom's Image to Be Part of Postal Service Series," Modesto Bee, October 5, 1998, A1.
266. CNN News Transcripts, "Q & A with Zain Verjee," March 18, 2002, transcript #031801cb.k19, http://www.lexis-nexis.com (accessed July 11, 2007).
267. The phrase "women vanish from the public eye" is a quote from Rahimullah Yusufzai, a respected Pakistani journalist who acted as an interpreter for SteveMcCurry and his television crew, and is quoted in Cathy Newman, "A Life Revealed," Selections from National Geographic, 2004, 33.
268. The quotation is from Robert Hariman and John Louis Lucaites, "Public Identity and Collective Memory in U.S. Iconic Photograph: The Image of 'Accidental Napalm,' " Critical Studies in Media Communication 20 (2003): 41.
269. The account of Kim Phuc is drawn from Denise Chong, The Girl in the Picture (New York: Viking, 2000). The specific quotations from Kim Phuc are from a UNESCO Press interview that cites Denise Chong, but lists author as UNESCO Press, "Kim Phuc: The Power of Forgiveness," Feature no. 2002-04, February 28, 2002, http://www.portal.unesco.org (accessed July 9, 2006).
270. The account of "Tomoko Is Bathed by Her Mother" and the letter from Aileen Mioko Smith are drawn from Larry Gross, John Stuart Katz, and Jay Ruby, "Introduction," in Image Ethics in the Digital Age (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), xxi, xxii.
271. Embedded journalists have to sign a fourteen-point agreement. Paragraph 11(a) of IAW Change 3, DoD Directive 5122.5: "Names, video, identifiable written/oral descriptions or identifiable photographs of wounded service members will not be released without the service member's prior written consent." Furthermore: "In respect for family members, names or images clearly identifying individuals 'killed in action' will not be released." The rule specifies that names of soldiers killed can be released a day after the family is officially notified, but it does not address photographs or video images. These excerpts come from David Carr, "Not to See the Fallen Is No Favor, New York Times, May 28, 2007, Section C, Business/Financial Desk, 1, http://www.nytimes.com (accessed June 21, 2007), and Michael Hedges and James Pinkerton, "Images of Dying Soldier Renew War Coverage Debate," Houston Chronicle, January 31, 2007, Section A, 1, http://www.chron.com (accessed June 21, 2007).
272. Carr, "Not to See the Fallen Is No Favor."
273. Hedges and Pinkerton, "Images of Dying Soldier RenewWar Coverage Debate."
274. David Douglas Duncan is quoted in Alan Riding, "An Eye for the Essential Emotion: The Photographer David Douglas Duncan Distills a Lucky Life," New York Times, December 24, 2003, Section E, The Arts/Cultural Desk, 1, http://www.nytimes.com (accessed March 27, 2006).
275. Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's photograph appeared on the front pages of American newspapers on June 9, 2006. I viewed the front pages of the American newspapers on the Web site of the Newseum, www.newseum.org/todaysfrontpages/, which displays a selection of national and international front pages submitted via the Internet on a daily basis.
276. "A Taliban Leader Is Killed in Afghanistan," the New York Times, May 14, 2007, Section A1. The caption reads, "Fallen Taliban Leader - The body of Mullah Dadullah, thought to be the Taliban's top operational commander, was shown yesterday in Kandahar" (photo by Hamed Zalmy/Agence France-Presse - Getty Images).
277. The statement of N. G. Burgess, a nineteenth-century photographer, is quoted in Richard Rudisill, Mirror Image (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971), 214.
278. Marina Warner, "Stolen Shadow, Lost Souls: Body and Soul in Photography," Raritan 15 (1995): 35, Academic Search Premier (accessed January 18, 2007).
279. Heike Behrend, "Photo Magic: Photographs in Practices of Healing and Harming in East Africa," Journal of Religion in Africa 33, no. 2 (2004): 133.
280. Eric Michaels, "A Primer of Restriction on Picture-Taking in Traditional Areas of Aboriginal Australia," Visual Anthropology 4 (1986): 260.
281. Bill Coleman, Amish Odyssey (New York: Van der Marck Editions, 1988), 17.
282. James R. O'Brien, "While I Wept: Did I Trade My Soul to a Man With a Camera?" New York Times, March 5, 1995, CY13.
283. Jed Perl, "Not-So-Simple Simplicity," New Republic, October 27, 2003, 31, 34.
284. Ron Kovic, Born on the Fourth of July (New York: Pocket Books, 1976), 54, 55.