Generation time and the stability of sex-determining alleles in oyster populations as deduced using a gene-based population dynamics model

Journal of Theoretical Biology

Volumn 271, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 27-43

  Powell, Eric N ^a   Klinck, John M ^b   Hofmann, Eileen E ^b  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Generation time; Genetic model; Oyster; Protandry; Sex ratio

Indexed keywords

ABUNDANCE; ALLELE; FECUNDITY; HETEROZYGOSITY; MOLLUSC; POPULATION DYNAMICS; PROTANDRY; SEX DETERMINATION; SEX RATIO; STABILIZATION;

ADAPTATION; ARTICLE; FERTILITY; GENE LOSS; GENETIC MODEL; GENETIC STABILITY; HEREDITY; HERMAPHRODITIC SPECIES; HETEROZYGOSITY; LARVA; LIFESPAN; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; OYSTER; POPULATION ABUNDANCE; POPULATION DYNAMICS; POPULATION SIZE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEX RATIO; SRY GENE; ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; FEMALE; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETICS; MALE; POPULATION DENSITY; SEX DETERMINATION PROCESS;

ANIMALIA; CRASSOSTREA; OSTREIDAE;

ANIMALS; FEMALE; GENE FREQUENCY; MALE; MODELS, GENETIC; OSTREIDAE; POPULATION DENSITY; POPULATION DYNAMICS; SEX DETERMINATION PROCESSES; SEX RATIO;

EID: 78649801185     PISSN: 00225193     EISSN: 10958541     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.11.006     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. Abbe G.R. Population structure of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, on an oyster bar in central Chesapeake Bay: changes associated with shell planting and increased recruitment. J. Shellfish Res. 1988, 7:33-40.
2. Allsop D.J., West S.A. Changing sex at the same relative body size. Nature (London) 2003, 425:783-784.
3. Allsop D.J., West S.A. Sex-ratio evolution in sex changing animals. Evolution 2004, 58:1019-1027.
4. Andrews J.D. Oyster mortality studies in Virginia VII. Review of epizootiology and origin of Minchinia nelsoni. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 1968, 58:23-36.
5. Andrews J.D. Oyster diseases in Chesapeake Bay. Mar. Fish. Rev. 1979, 41(1-2):45-53.
6. Andrews J.D. Epizootiology of the disease caused by the oyster pathogen Perkinsus marinus and its effects on the oyster industry. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 1988, 18:47-63.
7. Andrews J.D., Hewatt W.G. Oyster mortality studies in Virginia. II. The fungus disease caused by Dermocystidium marinum in oysters of Chesapeake Bay. Ecol. Monogr. 1957, 27:1-25.
8. Asif M. Hermaphroditism and sex reversal in the four common oviparous species of oysters from the coast of Karachi. Hydrobiologia 1979, 66:49-55.
9. Austin H.M., Evans D., Haven D.S. A retrospective time series analysis of oyster, Crassostrea virginica, recruitment (1946-1993). J. Shellfish Res. 1996, 15:565-582.
10. Babcock R.C., Mundy C.N., Whitehead D. Sperm diffusion models and in situ confirmation of long distance fertilization in the free-spawning asteroid Acanthaster planci. Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole) 1994, 186:17-28.
11. Baghurst B.C., Mitchell J.G. Sex-specific growth and condition of the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas Thunberg). Aquaculture Res. 2002, 33:1253-1263.
12. Barber B.J., Blake N.J. Energy storage and utilization in relation to gametogenesis in Argopecten irradians concentricus (Say). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1981, 52:121-134.
13. Barber B.J., Ford S.E., Wargo R.N. Genetic variation in the timing of gonadal maturation and spawning of the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole) 1991, 181:216-224.
14. Bauer R.T. Analysis of embryo production in a caridean shrimp guild from a tropical seagrass meadow. Crustacean Egg Production 1991, 181-191. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. A. Wenner, A. Kuris (Eds.).
15. Beck, M.W., Brumbaugh, R.D., Airoldi, L., Carranza, A., Coen, L.D., Crawford, C., Defeo, O., Edgar, G.J., Hancock, B., Kay, M., Lenihan, H., Luckenbach, M.W., Toropova, C.L., Zhang, G., 2009. Shellfish Reefs at Risk. A Global Analysis of Problems and Solutions. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, 52pp.
16. Berrigan, M., Candies, T., Cirino, J., Dugas, R., Dyer, C., Gray, J., Herrington, T., Keithly, W., Leard, R., Nelson, J.R., Hoose, M. van, 1991. The Oyster Fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, United States: A Regional Management Plan. Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission, Ocean Springs, Mississippi.
17. Buroker N.E. Sexuality with respect to shell length and group size in the Japanese oyster Crassostrea gigas. Malacologia 1983, 23:271-279.
18. Burreson E.M. Effects of Perkinsus marinus infection in the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica: I. Susceptibility of native and MSX-resistant stocks. J. Shellfish Res. 1991, 10:417-423.
19. Burreson E.M., Ragone Calvo L.M. Epizootiology of Perkinsus marinus disease of oysters in Chesapeake Bay, with emphasis on data since 1985. J. Shellfish Res. 1996, 15:17-34.
20. Buxton C.D. Life-history changes in exploited reef fishes on the east coast of South Africa. Environ. Biol. Fishes 1993, 36:47-63.
21. Calow P. Adaptational aspects of growth and reproduction in Lymnaea peregra (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) from exposed and sheltered aquatic habitats. Malacologia 1981, 21:5-13.
22. Charnov E.L., Hannah R.W. Shrimp adjust their sex ratio to fluctuating age distributions. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2002, 4:239-246.
23. Checa A.G., Jiménez-Jiménez A.P. Rib fabrication in Ostreoidea and Plicatuloidea (Bivalvia, Pteriomorphia) and its evolutionary significance. Zoomorphology 2003, 122:145-159.
24. Choi K-S., Lewis D.H., Powell E.N., Ray S.M. Quantitative measurement of reproductive output in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin), using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Aquaculture Fish. Manage. 1993, 24:299-322.
25. Coe W.R. Sex ratios and sex changes in mollusks. Mém. Mus. R. D'hist. Nat. Belg. 1936, 10(3):69-76.
26. Coe W.R. Conditions influencing change of sex in mollusks of the genus Crepidula. J. Exp. Zool. 1938, 77:401-424.
27. Collin R. Sex ratio, life-history invariants, and patterns of sex change in a family of protandrous gastropods. Evolution 2006, 60:735-745.
28. Comfort A. The duration of life in mollusks. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London 1957, 32:219-241.
29. Cook T., Folli M., Klinck J., Ford S., Miller J. The relationship between increasing sea-surface temperature and the northward spread of Perkinsus marinus (Dermo) disease epizootics in oysters. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 1998, 46:587-597.
30. Copeland B.J., Hoese H.D. Growth and mortality of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in high salinity shallow bays in central Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 1966, 11:149-158.
31. Crow J.R., Denniston C. Inbreeding and variance effective population numbers. Evolution 1988, 42:482-495.
32. Custer J.F., Doms K.R. Analysis of microgrowth patterns of the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) in the middle Atlantic region of North America: archaeological applications. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1990, 17:151-160.
33. Deevey E. Life tables for natural populations of animals. Q. Rev. Biol. 1947, 22:283-314.
34. Dinamani P. Reproductive cycle and gonadal changes in the New Zealand rock oyster Crassostrea glomerata. N. Z. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 1974, 8:39-65.
35. Deng Y., Liu X., Zhang G., Guo X. Inbreeding depression and maternal effects on early performance of Pacific abalone. N. Am. J. Aquaculture 2005, 67:231-236.
36. Dong, Q., 2005. Comparative studies of sperm cryopreservation of diploid and tetraploid Pacific oysters. Ph.D. Dissertation, Louisiana State University, 271pp.
37. Egami N. Studies on sexuality in the Japanese oyster, Ostrea gigas VII. Effects of gill removal on growth and sexuality. Annot. Zool. Jpn. 1953, 26:145-150.
38. Elder H.Y. Studies on the host parasite relationship between the parasitic prosobranch Thyca crystallina and the asteroid starfish Linckia laevigata. J. Zool. London 1979, 187:369-391.
39. Elston R.A., Kent M.L., Wilkinson M.T. Resistance of Ostrea edulis to Bonamia ostreae infection. Aquaculture 1987, 64:237-242.
40. Fabens A.J. Properties and fitting of the von Bertalanffy growth curve. Growth 1965, 29:265-289.
41. Farley C.A. Epizootic and enzootic aspects of Minchinia nelsoni (Haplosporida) disease in Maryland oysters. J. Protozool. 1975, 22:418-427.
42. Felsenstein J. Inbreeding and variance effective numbers in populations with overlapping generations. Genetics 1971, 68:581-597.
43. Festa-Bianchet M. Individual differences, parasites, and the costs of reproduction for bighorn ewes (Ovis canadensis). J. Anim. Ecol. 1989, 58:785-795.
44. Ford S.E. Range extension by the oyster parasite Perkinsus marinus into the northeastern United States: response to climate change. J. Shellfish Res. 1996, 15:45-56.
45. Ford S.E., Haskin H.H. History and epizootiology of Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX), an oyster pathogen in Delaware Bay, 1957-1980. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 1982, 40:118-141.
46. Ford, S.E., Tripp M.R., 1996. Diseases and defense mechanisms. In: Kennedy, V.S., Newell, R.I.E., Eble, A.F. (Eds.), The Eastern Oyster: Crassostrea Virginica, Maryland Sea Grant College Program, College Park, Maryland, pp. 581-659.
47. Frankham R. Effective population size/adult population size ratios in wildlife: a review. Genet. Res. Camb. 1995, 66:95-107.
48. Gaffney P.M., Bushek D. Genetic aspects of disease resistance in oysters. J. Shellfish Res. 1996, 15:135-140.
49. Gallager S.M., Mann R. Growth and survival of larvae of Mercenaria mercenaria (L) and Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) relative to broodstock conditioning and lipid content of eggs. Aquaculture 1986, 56:105-121.
50. Galtsoff P.S. The American oyster Crassostrea virginica Gmelin. Fish. Bull. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Bur. Comm. Fish. 1964, 64:1-480.
51. García-Esquivel Z., Bricelj V.M., González-Gómez M.A. Physiological basis for energy demands and early postlarval mortality in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2001, 263:77-103.
52. Gardner A., Allsop D.J., Charnov E.L., West S.A. A dimensionless invariant for relative size at sex change in animals: explanation and implications. Am. Nat. 2005, 165:551-565.
53. Gilpin, M., 1991. The genetic effective size of a metapopulation. In: Gilpin, M., Hanski, I. (Eds.), Metapopulation Dynamics: Empirical and Theoretical Investigations. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 42, 165-175.
54. Giribet G., Wheeler W. On bivalve phylogeny: a high-level analysis of the Bivalvia (Mollusca) based on combined morphology and DNA sequence data. Invertebr. Biol. 2002, 121:271-324.
55. Grassle J., Grassle J. Opportunistic life histories and genetic systems in marine benthic polychaetes. J. Mar. Res. 1974, 32:253-284.
56. Greenstreet S.P.R., Hall S.J. Fishing and the ground-fish assemblage structure in the north-western North Sea: an analysis of long-term and spatial trends. J. Anim. Ecol. 1996, 65:577-598.
57. Gross F., Smyth J.C. The decline of oyster populations. Nature (London) 1946, 157:540-542.
58. Guo X., Allen S.K. Sex determination and polyploid gigantism in the dwarf surfclam (Mulinia lateralis Say). Genetics 1994, 138:1198-1206.
59. Guo X., Hedgecock D., Hershberger W.K., Cooper K., Allen S.K. Genetic determinants of protandric sex in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas Thunberg. Evolution 1998, 52:394-402.
60. Gyllenberg M., Parvinen K., Dieckmann U. Evolutionary suicide and evolution of dispersal in structured metapopulations. J. Math. Biol. 2002, 45:79-105.
61. Haley L.E. Genetics of sex determination in the American oyster. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 1979, 69:54-57.
62. Hancock D.A. The relationship between stock and recruitment in exploited invertebrates. Rapp. P-v. Réun Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 1973, 164:113-131.
63. Harding J.M., Mann R. Veined rapa whelk (Rapana venosa) range extensions in the Virginia waters of Chesapeake Bay, USA. J. Shellfish Res. 2005, 24:381-385.
64. Harding J.M., Mann R., Southworth M.J. Shell length-at-age relationships in James River, Virginia, oysters (Crassostrea virginica) collected four centuries apart. J. Shellfish Res. 2008, 27:1109-1115.
65. Hargis, Jr., W.J., Haven, D.S., 1994. The precarious state of the Chesapeake public oyster resource. In: Toward a sustainable coastal watershed: the Chesapeake experiment. Proceedings of the Conference, 1-3 June 1974, Chesapeake Research Consortium Publication, Norfolk, Virginia, pp. 559-584.
66. Hayes P.F., Menzel R.W. The reproductive cycle of early setting Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) in the northern Gulf of Mexico, and its implications for population recruitment. Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole) 1981, 160:80-88.
67. Hedgecock D. Does variability in reproductive success limit effective population sizes of marine organisms?. Genetics and Evolution of Aquatic Organisms 1994, 122-134. Chapman & Hall, London. A.R. Beaumont (Ed.).
68. Hedgecock D., Chow V., Waples R.S. Effective population numbers of shellfish broodstocks estimated from the temporal variance in allelic frequencies. Aquaculture 1992, 108:215-232.
69. Heller J. Longevity in molluscs. Malacologia 1990, 31:259-295.
70. Héral M., Deslous-Paoli J.M. Valeur énergétique de la chain de l'hértre Crassostrea gigas estimée par mesures microcalorimetriques et par dosages biochimiques. Oceanol. Acta 1983, 6:193-199.
71. Hoagland K.E. Protandry and the evolution of environmentally-mediated sex change: a study of the Mollusca. Malacologia 1978, 17:365-391.
72. Hoenig J.M. Empirical use of longevity data to estimate mortality rates. Fish. Bull. 1983, 83:898-903.
73. Hofmann E.E., Klinck J.M., Kraeuter J.N., Powell E.N., Grizzle R.E., Buckner S.C., Bricelj V.M. A population dynamics model of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria: development of the age- and length-frequency structure of the population. J. Shellfish Res. 2006, 25:417-444.
74. Hofmann E.E., Klinck J.M., Powell E.N., Boyles S., Ellis M. Modeling oyster populations II. Adult size and reproductive effort. J. Shellfish Res. 1994, 13:165-182.
75. Hofmann E.E., Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Saunders G. Modeling diseased oyster populations I. Modelling Perkinsus marinus infections in oysters. J. Shellfish Res. 1995, 14:121-151.
76. Hofmann E.E., Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Wilson E.A. Modeling oyster populations. III. Critical feeding periods, growth and reproduction. J. Shellfish Res. 1992, 11:399-416.
77. Honkoop P.J.C., Bayne B.L., Drent J. Flexibility of size of gills and palps in the Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea glomerata (Gould, 1850) and the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg, 1793). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2003, 282:113-133.
78. Hoover C.A., Gaffney P.M. Geographic variation in nuclear genes of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica Gmelin. J. Shellfish Res. 2005, 24:103-112.
79. Hummel H. Geographical patterns of dominant bivalves and a polychaete in Europe: no metapopulations in the marine coastal zone?. Helgol. Mar. Res. 2003, 56:247-251.
80. Ingle R.M. Spawning and setting of oysters in relation to seasonal environmental changes. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribb. 1951, 1:111-135.
81. Ingle R.M., Dawson C.E. Growth of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) in Florida waters. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribb. 1952, 2:393-403.
82. Jensen A.L. Origin of the relation between K and Linf and synthesis of relations among life history parameters. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1997, 54:987-989.
83. Jordan S. Population and disease dynamics of Maryland oyster bars: a multivariate classification analysis. J. Shellfish Res. 1995, 14:459-468.
84. Jordan S.J., Greenhawk K.N., McCollough C.B., Vanisko J., Homer M.L. Oyster biomass, abundance, and harvest in northern Chesapeake Bay: trends and forecasts. J. Shellfish Res. 2002, 21:733-741.
85. Kabat A.R. Effects of trematode parasitism on reproductive output of the bivalve Transennella tantilla. Can. J. Zool. 1986, 64:267-270.
86. Kang S.-G., Choi K.-S., Bulgakov A.A., Kim Y., Kim S.-Y. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) used in quantification of reproductive output in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in Korea. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2003, 282:1-21.
87. Katkansky S.C., Sparks A.K. Seasonal sexual pattern in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in Washington state. Fish. Res. Pap. Wash. Dept. Fish. 1966, 2:80-89.
88. Kenchington E., MacDonald B., Cao L., Tsagkarakis D., Zouros E. Genetics of mother-dependent sex ratio in blue mussels (Mytilus spp.) and implications for doubly uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA. Genetics 2002, 161:1579-1588.
89. Kennedy V.S. Sex ratios in oysters, emphasizing Crassostrea virginica from Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. Veliger 1983, 25:329-338.
90. Kennedy V.S., Krantz C.B. Comparative gametogenic and spawning patterns of the oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) in central Chesapeake Bay. J. Shellfish Res. 1982, 2:133-140.
91. Kirby M.X. Paleoecological differences between Tertiary and Quaternary Crassostrea oysters, as revealed by stable isotope sclerochronology. Palaios 2000, 15:132-141.
92. Kobayashi M., Hofmann E.E., Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Kusaka K. A population dynamics model for the Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas. Aquaculture 1997, 149:285-321.
93. Kraeuter J.N., Buckner S., Powell E.N. A note on a spawner-recruit relationship for a heavily exploited bivalve: the case of northern quahog (hard clams), Mercenaria mercenaria in Great South Bay New York. J. Shellfish Res. 2005, 24:1043-1052.
94. Kraeuter J.N., Ford S., Cummings M. Oyster growth analysis: a comparison of methods. J. Shellfish Res. 2007, 26:479-491.
95. Kraeuter J.N., Klinck J.M., Powell E.N., Hofmann E.E., Buckner S.C., Grizzle R.E., Bricelj V.M. Effects of the fishery on the northern quahog (=hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria L.) population in Great South Bay, New York: a modeling study. J. Shellfish Res. 2008, 27:653-666.
96. Lango-Reynoso F., Devauchelle N., Le Pennec M., Hatt P.-J. Elements of reproductive strategy in oysters, Crassostrea gigas, from the "Rade de Brest", France. Invertebr. Reprod. Dev. 1999, 36:141-144.
97. Lango-Reynoso F., Chávez-Villaba J., Le Pennec M. Reproductive patterns of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in France. Invertebr. Reprod. Dev. 2006, 49:41-50.
98. Law R. Fishing, selection, and phenotypic evolution. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 2000, 57:659-668.
99. Law R., Grey D.R. Evolution of yields from populations with age-specific cropping. Evol. Ecol. 1989, 3:343-359.
100. Lester R.J.G. A review of methods for estimating mortality due to parasites in wild fish populations. Helgol. Wiss. Meeresunters. 1984, 37:53-64.
101. Leutert R. Sex-determination in Bonellia. Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom 1975, 84-90. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. R. Reinboth (Ed.).
102. Levitan D.R. Influence of body size and population density on fertilization success and reproductive output in a free-spawning invertebrate. Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole) 1991, 181:261-268.
103. Li Y., Qin J.G., Li X., Benkendorff K. Spawning-dependent stress responses in pacific [sic] oysters Crassostrea gigas: a simulated bacterial challenge in oysters. Aquaculture 2009, 293:164-171.
104. Liu X., Liu X., Guo X., Gao Q., Zhao H., Zhang G. A preliminary genetic linkage map of the Pacific abalone Haliotis discus hannai Ino. Mar. Biotechnol. 2006, 8:386-397.
105. Loosanoff V.L. Time and intensity of setting of the oyster Crassostrea virginica, in Long Island Sound. Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole) 1966, 130:211-227.
106. Lucas A. Evaluation of reproductive effort in bivalve molluscs. Malacologia 1982, 22:183-187.
107. Mackenzie C.L. History of oystering in the United States and Canada, featuring the eight greatest oyster estuaries. Mar. Fish. Rev. 1996, 58(4):1-78.
108. Mackin J.G. A method of estimation of mortality rates in oysters. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 1959, 50:41-51.
109. Mackinson S., Sumaila U.R., Pitcher T.J. Bioeconomics and catchability: fish and fishers behaviour during stock collapse. Fish. Res. 1997, 31:11-17.
110. Malchus N. Early ontogeny of Jurassic bakevelliids and their bearing on bivalve evolution. Acta Palaeontol. Pol. 2004, 49:85-110.
111. Mancera E., Mendo J. Population dynamics of the oyster Crassostrea rhizophorae from the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta, Colombia. Fish. Res. 1996, 26:139-148.
112. Mann R. Restoring the oyster reef communities in the Chesapeake Bay: a commentary. J. Shellfish Res. 2000, 19:335-339.
113. Mann R., Evans D.A. Estimation of oyster, Crassostrea virginica, standing stock, larval production and advective loss in relation to observed recruitment in the James River, Virginia. J. Shellfish Res. 1998, 17:239-253.
114. Matthiessen G.C., Feng S.Y., Leibovitz L. Patterns of MSX (Haplosporidium nelsoni) infection and subsequent mortality in resistant and susceptible strains of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791), in New England. J. Shellfish Res. 1990, 9:359-365.
115. McGarvey R., Serchuk F.M., McLaren I.A. Spatial parent-age analysis of stock-recruitment in the Georges Bank sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) population. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1993, 50:564-574.
116. Morbey Y.E., Abrams P.A. The interaction between reproductive lifespan and protandry in seasonal breeders. J. Evol. Biol. 2004, 17:768-778.
117. Morton B. Life cycle and sexual strategy of Saccostrea cucullata (Bivalvia: Ostreidae) from a Hong Kong mangrove. Am. Malacol. Bull. 1990, 8:1-8.
118. Needler A.W.H., Logie R.R. Serious mortalities in Prince Edward Island oysters caused by a contagious disease. Trans. R. Soc. Can. Ser. III 1947, 41:73-89.
119. Ngo T.T.T., Kang S.-G., Kang D.-H., Sorgeloos P., Choi K.-S. Effect of culture depth on the proximate composition and reproduction of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas from Gosung Bay, Korea. Aquaculture 2006, 253:712-720.
120. Nunney L., Elam D.R. Estimating the effective population size of conserved populations. Conserv. Biol. 1994, 8:175-184.
121. Ólafsson E.B., Peterson C.H., Ambrose W.G. Does recruitment limitation structure populations and communities of macro-invertebrates in marine soft sediments: the relative significance of pre- and post-settlement processes. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 1994, 32:65-109.
122. Orton J.H. Observations and experiments on sex-change in the European oyster (O. edulis) Part I. The change from female to male. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 1927, 14:967-1045.
123. Orton J.H. Observations and experiments on sex-change in the European oyster (O. edulis) Part V. A simultaneous study of spawning in 1927 in two distinct geographical localities. Mém. Mus. R. D'hist. Nat. Belg. 1936, 10(3):997-1056.
124. Osman R.W., Whitlatch R.B., Zajac R.N. Effects of resident species on recruitment into a community: larval settlement versus post-settlement mortality in the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1989, 54:61-73.
125. Owen H.M. Growth and mortality of oysters in Louisiana. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribb. 1953, 3:44-54.
126. Paniagua-Chávez C.G., Acosta-Ruiz M.de.J. Gonadal development of Crassostrea gigas in Bahía San Quintín, Baja California, Mexico. Cienc. Mar. 1995, 20:225-242.
127. Pannell J.R., Charlesworth B. Effects of metapopulation processes on measures of genetic diversity. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B Biol. Sci. 2000, 355:1851-1864.
128. Park K.-I., Choi J.-W., Choi K.-S. Quantification of reproductive output of the butter clam, Saxidomus purpuratus (Sowerby, 1852) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Ocean Polar Res. 2003, 25:249-256.
129. Parry G.D. The meanings of r- and k-selection. Oecologia (Berlin) 1981, 48:260-264.
130. Peharda M., Mladineo I., Bolotin J., Kekez L., Skaramuca B. The reproductive cycle and potential protandric development of the Noah's Ark shell, Arca noae L.: implications for aquaculture. Aquaculture 2006, 252:317-327.
131. Perdue J.A., Beattie J.H., Chew K.K. Some relationships between gametogenic cycle and summer mortality phenomenon in the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) in Washington state. J. Shellfish Res. 1981, 1:9-16.
132. Peterson C.H., Summerson H.C. Basin-scale coherences of population dynamics of an exploited marine invertebrate, the bay scallop: implications of recruitment limitation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1992, 90:257-272.
133. Pianka E. On r- and k-selection. Am. Nat. 1970, 104:592-597.
134. Powell E.N., Ashton-Alcox K.A., Kraeuter J.N., Ford S.E., Bushek D. Long-term trends in oyster population dynamics in Delaware Bay: regime shifts and response to disease. J. Shellfish Res. 2008, 27:729-755.
135. Powell E.N., Cummins H., Stanton R.J., Staff G. Estimation of the size of molluscan larval settlement using the death assemblage. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 1984, 18:367-384.
136. Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Ashton-Alcox K.A., Kraeuter J.N. Multiple stable reference points in oyster populations: biological relationships for the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) in Delaware Bay. Fish. Bull. 2009, 107:109-132.
137. Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Ashton-Alcox K.A., Kraeuter J.N. Multiple stable reference points in oyster populations: implications for reference point-based management. Fish. Bull. 2009, 107:133-147.
138. Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Hofmann E.E. Modeling diseased oyster populations. II. Triggering mechanisms for Perkinsus marinus epizootics. J. Shellfish Res. 1996, 15:141-165.
139. Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Hofmann E.E., Ray S.M. Modeling oyster populations. IV: rates of mortality, population crashes and management. Fish. Bull. 1994, 92:347-373.
140. Powell E.N., Klinck J.M., Hofmann E.E., Wilson-Ormond E.A., Ellis M.S. Modeling oyster populations. V. Declining phytoplankton stocks and the population dynamics of American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) populations. Fish. Res. 1995, 24:199-222.
141. Powell E.N., Stanton R.J. Estimating biomass and energy flow of molluscs in paleo-communities. Palaeontology (London) 1985, 28:1-34.
142. Press W.H., Flannery B.P., Teukolsky S.A., Vettering W.T. Numerical Recipes, the Art of Scientific Computing 1986, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
143. Ragone Calvo L.M., Calvo G.W., Burreson E.M. Dual disease resistance in a selectively bred eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, strain tested in Chesapeake Bay. Aquaculture 2003, 220:69-87.
144. Richards D.V., Davis G.E. Early warnings of modern population collapse in black abalone Haliotis cracherodii, Leach, 1814 at the California Channel Islands. J. Shellfish Res. 1993, 12:189-194.
145. Rothschild B.J., Ault J.S., Goulletquer P., Héral M. Decline of the Chesapeake Bay oyster populations: a century of habitat destruction and overfishing. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1994, 111:29-39.
146. Saavedra C. Low effective sizes in hatchery populations of the European oyster (Ostrea edulis): implications for the management of genetic resources. J. Shellfish Res. 1997, 16:441-446.
147. Shigemiya Y., Kato M. Age distribution, growth, and lifetime population frequency of a freshwater snail, Clithon retropictus (Neritidae). Popul. Ecol. 2001, 43:133-140.
148. Siddiqui G., Ahmed M. Gametogenic patterns of the larviparous oyster Ostrea nomades from Karachi, Pakistan (northern Arabian Sea). Aquaculture Res. 2002, 33:1049-1058.
149. Sladek Nowlis J.E. Short- and long-term effects of three fishery-management tools on depleted fisheries. Bull. Mar. Sci. 2000, 66:651-662.
150. Soong K., Chen M.-H. Sex expression of an immobile coral-inhabiting snail, Quoyula monodonta. Mar. Biol. (Berlin) 2003, 143:351-358.
151. Sprung M. Costs of reproduction: a study on metabolic requirements of the gonads and fecundity of the bivalve Dreissena polymorpha. Malacologia 1991, 33:63-70.
152. Stanton R.J., Powell E.N., Nelson P.C. The role of carnivorous gastropods in the trophic analysis of a fossil community. Malacologia 1981, 20:451-469.
153. Stauber L.A. The problem of physiological species with special reference to oysters and oyster drills. Ecology 1950, 31:109-118.
154. Stearns S.C. Life-history tactics: a review of the ideas. Q. Rev. Biol. 1976, 51:3-47.
155. Sunila I., Karolus J., Volk J. A new epizootic of Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX), a haplosporidian oyster parasite in Long Island Sound, Connecticut. J. Shellfish Res. 1999, 118:169-174.
156. Tanguy A., Guo X., Ford S.E. Discovery of genes expressed in response to Perkinsus marinus challenge in eastern (Crassostrea virginica) and Pacific (C. gigas) oysters. Gene 2004, 338:121-131.
157. Thiriot-Quiévreux C. Advances in chromosomal studies of gastropod molluscs. J. Moll. Stud. 2003, 69:187-201.
158. Thomas F.I.M. Transport and mixing of gametes in three free-spawning polychaete annelids, Phragmatopoma californica (Fewkes), Sabellaria cementarium (Moore), and Schizobranchia insignis (Bush). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1994, 179:11-27.
159. Thorson G. Some factors influencing the recruitment and establishment of marine benthic communities. Neth. J. Sea Res. 1966, 3:267-293.
160. Tran D., Massabuau J.-C., Vercelli C. Influence of sex and spawning state on oxygen consumption and blood oxygenation status in oysters Crassostrea gigas cultured in a Mediterranean lagoon (Thau, France). Aquaculture 2008, 277:58-65.
161. Vakily, J.M., 1992. Determination and comparison of bivalve growth, with emphasis on Thailand and other tropical areas. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management Technical Report, 36, 125pp.
162. Vetter E.F. Estimation of natural mortality in fish stocks: a review. Fish. Bull. 1987, 86:25-43.
163. Virabhadra Rao K. Seasonal gonadal changes in the adult backwater oyster, Ostrea (Crassostrea) madrasensis Preston from Ennur near Madras. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. A Phys. Sci. 1956, 44:332-356.
164. Vitturi R., Colomba M.S., Caputo V., Pandolfo A. XY chromosome sex systems in the neogastropods Fasciolaria lignaria and Pisania striata (Mollusca: Prosobranchia). J. Heredity 1998, 89:538-543.
165. Wang Y., Xu Z., Guo X. Differences in the rDNA-bearing chromosome divide the Asian-Pacific and Atlantic species of Crassostrea (Bivalvia, Mollusca). Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole) 2004, 206:46-54.
166. Wang Y., Xu Z., Pierce J.C., Guo X. Characterization of eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin) chromosomes by fluorescence in situ hybridization with bacteriophage P1 clones. Mar. Biotechnol. 2005, 7:207-214.
167. Wang Z.P., Guo X., Allen S.K., Wang R. Aneuploid Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas Thunberg) as incidentals from triploid production. Aquaculture 1999, 173:347-357.
168. Waples R.S. A generalized approach for estimating effective population size from temporal changes in allele frequency. Genetics 1989, 121:379-391.
169. Warner R.R., Robertson D.R., Leigh E.G. Sex change and sexual selection. Science (Wash. D.C.) 1975, 190:633-638.
170. Yu Z., Guo X. Genetic analysis of selected strains of eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin) using AFLP and microsatellite markers. Mar. Biotechnol. 2005, 6:575-586.
171. Yu Z., Guo X. Identification and mapping of disease-resistance QTLs in the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica Gmelin. Aquaculture 2006, 254:160-170.
172. Zolotarev V. The Black Sea ecosystem changes related to the introduction of new mollusc species. P.S.Z.N.I: Mar. Ecol. 1996, 17:227-236.