Antisocial personality disorder

The Medical Basis of Psychiatry: Third Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 213-226

  Derefinko, Karen J ^a   Widiger, Thomas A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY   (United States)

Author keywords

Antisocial; Dimensional models; Pathology; Personality disorders; Psychopathy

Indexed keywords

EID: 78649687481     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-252-6_13     Document Type: Chapter

References (150)

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-4th ed, text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
2. Cleckley H. The Mask of Sanity. St. Louis: Mosby, 1941/1988.
3. Robins L. Deviant children grown up. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company, 1966.
4. Hare RD, Hart SD, Harpur TJ. Psychopathy and the DSM-IV criteria for antisocial personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 1991;100:391-398.
5. Lilienfeld SO. Conceptual problems in the assessment of psychopathy. Clin Psychol Rev 1994;14:17-38.
6. Hare RD. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Toronto: Multi Health Systems Inc., 1991.
7. Lilienfeld SO, Andrews BP. Development and preliminary validation of a self-report measure of psychopathic personality traits in noncriminal populations. J Pers Assess 1996;66(3):488-524.
8. Costa PT Jr, McCrae RR. Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa: PAR, 1992.
9. Lynam DR. Psychopathy from the perspective of the five-factor model of personality. In: Costa PT, Widiger TA, eds. Personality and the Five-Factor Model of Personality, 2nd ed. Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 2002: 325-350.
10. Miller JD, Lynam DR, Widiger TA, Leukefeld C. Personality disorders as extreme variants of common personality dimensions: Can the Five-Factor Model adequately represent psychopathy? J Pers 2001;69(2):253-276.
11. Miller JD, Lynam DR. Psychopathy and the five factor model of personality: A replication and extension. J Pers Assess 2003;81:168-178.
12. Brooner RK, Herbst JH, Schmidt CW, Bigelow GE, Costa PT. Antisocial personality disorder among drug abusers: Relations to other personality diagnoses and the five-factor model of personality. J Nerv Ment Dis 1993;181:313-319.
13. Hicklin J, Widiger TA. Similarities and differences among antisocial and psychopathic self-report inventories from the perspective of general personality functioning. European Journal of Personality 2005;19:325-342.
14. John OP, Caspi A, Robins RW, Moffit TE, Stouthamer-Loeber M. The 'little five': Exploring the nomological network of the five-factor model of personality in adolescent boys. Child Dev 1994;65:160-178.
15. Moffitt TE. The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychol Bull 2005;131(4):533-554.
16. Rhee SH, Waldman ID. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol Bull 2002;128:490-529.
17. Waldman ID, Rhee SH. Genetic and environmental influences on psychopathy and antisocial behavior. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:205-228.
18. Chiavegatto S. Using mouse models to unravel aggressive behavior. In: Canli T, ed. Biology of Personality and Individual Differences. New York: Guilford, 2006:385-406.
19. DeVries AC, Young WS, Nelson RJ. Reduced aggressive behavior in mice with targeted disruption of the oxytocin gene. J Neuroendocrinol 1997;9(5):363-368.
20. Minzenberg MJ, Siever LJ. Neurochemistry and pharmacology of psychopathy and related disorders. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:251-277.
21. Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J, Craig I, Taylor A, Poulton R. Role of the genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 2002;297:851-854.
22. Miles DR, Carey G. Genetic and environmental architecture of human aggression. J Pers Soc Psychol 1997;71:207-217.
23. Kendler KS, Prescott CA, Myers J, Neale MC. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:929-937.
24. Eron LD. The development of antisocial behavior from a learning perspective. In: Stoff DM, Brieling J, Maser J, eds. Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. New York: Wiley, 1997: 140-147.
25. Farrington DP. Family background and psychopathy. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:229-250.
26. Widom CS. Childhood victimization and adolescent problem behaviors. In: Ketterlinus RD, Lamb ME, eds. Adolescent Problem Behaviors. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1994:127-164.
27. Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Taylor A. Physical maltreatment victim to antisocial child: Evidence of an environmentally mediated process. J Abnorm Psychol 2004;113:44-55.
28. Robins LN, Regier DA, eds. Psychiatric Disorders in America. New York: Free Press, 1991
29. Widiger TA. Psychopathy and DSM-IV Psychopathology. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:156-171.
30. Hart SD, Hare RD. Psychopathy: Assessment and association with criminal conduct. In: Stoff DM, Brieling J, Maser J, eds. Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. New York: Wiley, 1997: 22-35.
31. Hare RD. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, 2nd ed. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Inc., 2003.
32. Sullivan EA, Kosson DS. Ethnic and cultural variations in psychopathy. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:205-228.
33. Cooke DJ, Michie C. Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model. Psychol Assess 2001;13(2): 171-188.
34. Kosson DS, Smith SS, Newman JP. Evaluating the construct validity of psychopathy in black and white male inmates: Three preliminary studies. J Abnorm Psychol 1990;99: 250-259.
35. Verona E, Vitale JE. Psychopathy in women: Assessment, manifestations, and etiology. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:415-436.
36. Vitale JE, Smith SS, Brinkley CA, Newman JP. The reliability and validity of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in a sample of female offenders. Crim Justice Behav 2002;29: 202-231.
37. Costa PT Jr, Terracciano A, McCrae RR. Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001;81(2):322-331.
38. Hare RD. A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. Pers Individ Dif 1980;1: 111-119.
39. Robins LN, Tipp J, Przybeck T. Antisocial personality. In: Robins LN, Regier DA, eds. Psychiatric Disorders in America. New York: Free Press, 1991:258-290.
40. Swanson MC, Bland RC, Newman SC. Antisocial personality disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;89:63-70.
41. Hart SD, Hare RD. Discriminant validity of the Psychopathy Checklist in a forensic psychiatric population. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989;1(3):211-218.
42. Shine J, Hobson J. Construct validity of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist, Revised, on a UK prison population. J Forensic Psychiatry 1997;8(3):546-561.
43. Livesley WJ, Schroeder M. Dimensions of personality disorder: The DSM-III-R cluster B diagnoses. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179:320-328.
44. Morey LC. The categorical representation of personality disorder: A cluster analysis of DSM-III-R personality features. J Abnorm Psychol 1988;97:314-321.
45. Lynam DR, Widiger TA. Using a general model of personality to identify the basic elements of psychopathy. J Personal Disord 2007;21:160-178.
46. Cooke DJ, Michie C, Hart SD. Facets of clinical psychopathy. In: Patrick CJ ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:415-436.
47. Gottfredson MR, Hirshi T. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990.
48. Cooke DJ, Michie C, Hart SD, Clark D. Reconstructing psychopathy: Clarifying the significance of antisocial and socially deviant behavior in the diagnosis of psychopathic personality disorder. J Personal Disord 2004;18: 337-357.
49. Lilienfeld SO, Fowler KA. The self-report assessment of psychopathy: Problems, pitfalls, and promises. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006: 107-132.
50. Edens JF, Poythress NG, Watkins MM. Further validation of the psychopathic personality inventory among offenders: Personality and behavioral correlates. J Personal Disord 2001;15: 403-415.
51. Derefinko KJ, Lynam DR. Convergence and divergence among self-report psychopathy measures: A personality-based approach. J Personal Disord 2006;20(3):261-280.
52. Poythress NG, Edens JF, Lilienfeld SO. Criterion related validity of the psychopathic personality inventory in a prison sample. Psychol Assess 1998;10:426-430.
53. Singer M. Delinquency and family disciplinary configurations: An elaboration of the superego lacunae concept. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974;31(6):795-798.
54. Kernberg OF. Severe Personality Disorders. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.
55. Hare RD. Without Conscience. New York: Guilford, 1993.
56. Patrick CJ, Cuthbert BN, Lang PJ. Emotion in the criminal psychopath: Startle reflex modulation. J Abnorm Psychol 1994;103:523-534.
57. Blair RJR. Subcortical brain systems in psychopathy: The amygdala and associated structures. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006: 296-312.
58. Raine A, Yang Y. The neuroanatomical bases of psychopathy: A review of the brain. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:278-295.
59. Amen DG, Strubblefield M, Carmichael B, Thisted R. Brain SPECT findings and aggressiveness. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1996;8:129-137.
60. Wong MTH, Lumsden J, Fenton GW, Fenwick PBC. Neuroimaging in mentally abnormal offenders. Issues in Crim-inological and Legal Psychology 1997;27:49-58.
61. Raine A, Buchsbaum MS. Violence, brain imaging, and neuropsychology. In: Stoff DM, Cairns RB, eds. Aggression and Violence: Genetic, Neurobiological, and Biosocial Perspectives. Mahwah: Erlbaum, 1996:195-217.
62. Soderstrom H, Tullberg M, Wikkelsoe C, Ekholm S, Forsman A. Reduced regional cerebral blood flow in non-psychotic violent offenders. Psychiatry Res 2000;98: 29-41.
63. Raine A, Buchsbaum MS, LaCasse. Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 1997;42:495-508.
64. Critchley HD, Simmons A, Daly EM, Russel A, van Amelsvoort T, Robertson DM. Prefrontal and medial temporal correlates of repetitive violence to self and others. Biological Psychiatry 2000;47:928-934.
65. Kuruoglu AC, Arikan Z, Vural G, Karatas M. Single photon emission computerized tomography in chronic alcoholism: Antisocial personality disorder may be associated with decreased frontal perfusion. Br J Psychiatry 1996;169: 348-354.
66. Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science 1997;275:1293-1294.
67. Gray JA. The psychology of fear and stress, 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
68. Fowles DC. Biological variables in psychopathology: a psychobiological perspective. In: Adams HE, Sutker PB, eds. Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology, 3rd ed. New York: Plenum Publishers, 2001:85-104.
69. Widiger TA, Lynam DR. Psychopathy and the five-factor model of personality. In: Millon T, Simonsen E, Birket-Smith M, Davis RD, eds. Psychopathy: Antisocial, Criminal, and Violent Behaviors. New York: Guilford, 1998:171-187.
70. Lykken DT. A study in anxiety in the sociopathic personality. J Abnorm Soc Psychol 1957;55:6-10.
71. Raine A. The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
72. Buikhuisen W, Bontekoe EHM, Plas-Korenhoff CD, Buuren S. Characteristics of Criminals: The privileged offender. Int J Law Psychiatry 1984;7:301-313.
73. Kruesi MJ, Hibbs ED, Zahn TP, Keysor CS. A 2-year prospective follow-up study of children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders: Prediction by cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, homovanillic acid, and autonomic measures? Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49:429-435.
74. Fowles DC. The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology 1980;17:87-104.
75. Patrick CJ, Bradley MM, Lang PJ. Emotion in the criminal psychopath: Startle reflex modulation. J Abnorm Psychol 1993;102:82-92.
76. Levenston GK, Patrick CJ, Bradley MM, Lang PJ. The psychopath as observer: Emotion and attention in picture processing. J Abnorm Psychol 2000;103:523-534.
77. Sutton SK, Vitale JE, Newman JP. Emotion among women with psychopathy during picture perception. J Abnorm Psychol 2002;111:610-619.
78. Vanman EJ, Mejia VY, Dawson ME, Schell AM, Raine A. Modification of the startle reflex in a community sample: Do one or two dimensions of psychopathy underlie emotional processing? Pers Individ Dif 2003;35:2007-2021.
79. Brantley PJ, Sutker PB. Antisocial personality disorders. In: Adams HE, Sutker PB, eds. Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology. New York: Plenum, 1984:439-478.
80. Harris GT, Rice ME, Lalumiére M. Criminal violence: The roles of psychopathy, neurodevelopmental insults and antisocial parenting. Crim Justice Behav 2001;28:402-426.
81. Loney BR, Frick PJ, Ellis ML, McCoy MG. Intelligence, psychopathy, and antisocial behavior. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 1998;20:231-247.
82. Salekin RT, Neumann CS, Leistico AR, Zalot AA. Psychopathy in youth and intelligence: An investigation of Cleckley's hypothesis. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2004;33: 731-742.
83. Newman JP, Kosson DS. Passive-avoidance learning in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders. J Abnorm Psychol 1986;95:257-263.
84. Hiatt KD, Newman JP. Understanding psychopathy: The cognitive side. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:156-171.
85. Jutai JW, Hare RD. Psychopathy and selective attention during performance of a complex perceptual motor task. Psychophysi-ology 1983;20:146-151.
86. Newman JP, Lorenz AR. Response modulation and emotion processing: Implications for psychopathy and other dysregula-tory psychopathology. In: Davidson RJ, Scherer K, Goldsmith HH, eds. Handbook of Affective Sciences. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003:1043-1067.
87. Newman JP, Patterson CM, Kosson DS. Response perseveration in psychopaths. J Abnorm Psychol 1987;96:145-148.
88. Hiatt KD, Schmitt WA, Newman JP. Stroop tasks reveal abnormal selective attention among psychopathic offenders. Neuropsychology 2004;18(1):50-59.
89. Newman JP, Schmitt WA, Voss WD. The impact of motiva-tionally neutral cues on psychopathic individuals: Assessing the generality of the response modulation hypothesis. J Abnorm Psychol 1997;106:563-575.
90. Newman JP, Patterson CM, Howland EW, Nichols SL. Passive avoidance in psychopaths: The effects of reward. Pers Individ Dif 1990;11:1101-1114.
91. Newman JP. Reaction to punishment in extraverts and psychopaths: Implications for the impulsive behavior of disin-hibited individuals. J Res Pers 1997;21:464-485.
92. Eysenck HJ. General features of the model. In: Eysenck HJ, ed. A Model for Personality. New York:Springer-Verlag, 1981: 1-37.
93. Lykken DT. The Antisocial Personalities. Hillsdale: Earlbaum, 1995.
94. Widiger TA, Lynam DR. Psychopathy and the five-factor model of personality. In: Millon T, Simonsen E, Birket-Smith M, Davis RD, eds. Psychopathy: Antisocial, Criminal, and Violent Behaviors. New York: Guilford, 1998:171-187.
95. Hare RD, McPherson LM, Forth AE. Male psychopaths and their criminal careers. J Consult Clin Psychol 1988;56: 710-714.
96. Hare RD, McPherson LM, Psychopathy and perceptual asymmetry in semantic processing. Pers Individ Dif 1984;9:329-337.
97. Harpur TJ, Hare RD. Assessment of psychopathy as a function of age. J Abnorm Psychol 1994;103(4):604-609.
98. Costa PT, McCrae RR. (1994). Set like plaster? Evidence for the stability of adult personality. In: Heatherton T, Weinberger JL, eds. Can personality change? Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1994:21-40.
99. Hemphill JF, Hart SD, Hare RD. Psychopathy and substance use. J Personal Disord 1994;8:169-180.
100. Verheul R, van den Brink W, Hartgers C. Prevalence of personality disorders among alcoholics and drug addicts: An overview. European Addiction Research 1995;1:166-177.
101. Widiger TA, Corbitt EM. Antisocial personality disorder in DSM-IV. In: Livesley WJ, ed. The DSM-IV Personality Disorders. New York: Guilford Press, 1995:103-126.
102. Sher KJ, Trull TJ. Personality and disinhibitory psycho-pathology: Alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 1994;103:92-102.
103. Kreuger RF. Personality from a realist's perspective: Personality traits, criminal behaviors, and the externalizing spectrum. J Res Pers 2002;36:564-572.
104. Blackburn R, Logan C, Donnelly J, Renwick S. Personality disorders, psychopathy, and other mental disorders: Co-morbidity among patients at English and Scottish high-security hospitals. J Forensic Psychiatry Psychol 2003;14:111-137.
105. Salekin R, Trobst KK, Krioukova M. Construct validity of psychopathy in a community sample: A nomological net approach. J Personal Disord 2001;15:425-441.
106. Kernberg OF. Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder: Theoretical background and diagnostic classification. In: Ronningstam EF, ed. Disorders of Narcissism: Diagnostic, Clinical, and Empirical Implications. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998:29-52.
107. Stone M. Abnormalities of Personality. Within and Beyond Treatment. New York: Norton, 1993.
108. Hart SD, Hare RD. Association between psychopathy and narcissism: Theoretical reviews and empirical evidence. In: Ronningstam EF, ed. Disorders of Narcissism: Diagnostic, Clinical, and Empirical Implications, 1998:415-436.
109. Widiger TA, Cadoret R, Hare R, Robins L, Rutherford M, Zanarini M, Alterman A, Apple M, Corbitt E, Hart S, Kultermann J, Woody G, Frances A. DSM-IV antisocial personality disorder field trial. J Abnorm Psychol 1996;105:3-16.
110. Lynam DR, Widiger TA. Using the Five Factor Model to represent the DSM-IV personality disorders: An expert consensus approach. J Abnorm Psychol 2001;110:401-412.
111. Lynam DR, Derefinko KD. Psychopathy and personality. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:133-155.
112. Harris GT, Rice ME. Treatment of psychopathy: A review of empirical findings. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. New York: Guilford, 2006:555-572.
113. Maas J. The use of actional procedures in group psychotherapy with sociopathic women. Int J Group Psychother 1966;16: 190-197.
114. Miles AE. The effects of therapeutic community on the interpersonal relationships of a group of psychopaths. Br J Criminol 1969;9:22-38.
115. Persons RW. Psychotherapy with sociopathic offenders: An empirical evaluation. J Clin Psychol 1965;21:205-207.
116. Salekin RT. Psychopathy and therapeutic pessimism: Clinical lore or clinical reality? Clin Psychol Rev 2002;22:79-112.
117. Rice ME, Harris GT, Cormier C. A follow-up of rapists assessed in a maximum security psychiatric facility. J Interpers Violence 1992;5:435-448.
118. Seto MC, Barbaree H. Psychopathy, treatment behavior, and sex offender recidivism. J Interper Violence 1999;14:1235-1248.
119. Woody GE, McLellan AT, Luborsky L, O'Brien CC. Sociopathy and psychotherapy outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:1081-1086.
120. Cloninger CR. Antisocial personality disorder: A review. In: Maj M, Akiskal HS, Mezzich JE, Okasha A, eds. Personality Disorders, 1st ed, vol. 8. West Sussex: Wiley, 2005:125-169.
121. Looman J, Abracen J, Serin R, Marquis P. Psychopathy, treatment change, and recidivism in high-risk, high-need sexual offenders. J Interpers Violence 2005;20:549-568.
122. Hughes G, Hogue T, Hollin C, Champion H. First-stage evaluation of a treatment programme for personality disordered offenders. J Forensic Psychiatry, 1997;8:515-527.
123. O'Neill ML, Lidz V, Heilbrun K. Adolescents with psychopathic characteristics in a substance abusing cohort: Treatment process and outcomes. Law Hum Behav 2003;27:299-313.
124. Hare RD, Clark D, Grann M, Thornton D. Psychopathy and the predictive validity of the PCL-R: An international perspective. Behav Sci Law 2000;18:623-645.
125. Martinson R. What works? Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest 1974;35:22-54.
126. Lösel F. Treatment and management of psychopaths. In: Cooke DJ, Hare RD, Forth AE, eds. Psychopathy: Theory, Research, and Implications for Society. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1998.
127. Skeem JL, Monahan J, Mulvey EP. Psychopathy, treatment involvement, and subsequent violence among civil psychiatric patients. Law Hum Behav 2002;26:577-603.
128. Hobson J, Shine J, Roberts R. How do psychopaths behave in a prison therapeutic community? Psychology, Crime, and Law 2000;6:139-154.
129. Ogloff J, Wong S, Greenwood A. Treating criminal psychopaths in a therapeutic community program. Behav Sci Law 1990;8:81-90.
130. Dolan B, Coid J. Psychopathic and Antisocial Personality Disorders: Treatment and Research Issues. London: Gaskell, 1993.
131. Wender PH, Wolf LE, Wasserstein J. Adults with ADHD: An overview. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001;931:1-16.
132. Wender PH. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1998;21:761-764.
133. Klein RG, Abikoff H, Klass E, Ganeles D, Seese LM, Pollack S. Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:1073-1080.
134. Cloninger CR. Drug treatment of antisocial behavior. In: Grahame-Smith DG, Hippius H, Winokur G, eds. Psychopharmacology. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1983: 353-370.
135. Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM. Personality disorders. In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, eds. Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000: 1723-1764.
136. Sheard MH, Marini JL, Bridges CI, Wagner E. The effect of lithium on impulsive aggressive behavior in man. Am J Psychiatry 1976;133:1409-1413.
137. Malone RP, Delaney MA, Luebbert JF, Cater J, Campbell MA. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lithium in hospitalized aggressive children and adolescents with conduct disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002;57:649-654.
138. Kavoussi RJ, Liu J, Coccaro EF. An open trial of sertraline in personality disordered patients with impulsive aggression. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:137-141.
139. Heiligenstein JH, Beasley CM Jr, Potvin JH. Fluoxetine not associated with increased aggression in controlled clinical trials. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;8:277-280.
140. Donovan SJ, Stewart JW, Nunes EV, Quitkin FM, Parides M, Daniel W, Susser E, Klein DF. Divalproex treatment for youth with explosive temper and mood lability: A double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:818-820.
141. Kavoussi RJ, Coccaro EF. Divalproex sodium for impulsive aggressive behavior in patients with personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:676-680.
142. Hollander E, Tracy KA, Swann AC, Coccaro EF, McElroy SL, Wozniak P, et al. Divalproex in the treatment of impulsive aggression: Efficacy in cluster B personality disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;28:1186-1197.
143. Barratt ES, Stanford MS, Felthous AR, Kent TA. The effects of phenytoin on impulsive and premeditated aggression: A controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;17: 341-349.
144. Cloninger CR. Feeling Good: The Science of Well Being. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
145. Widiger TA. Cloninger's theory of antisocial personality disorder. In: Maj M, Akiskal HS, Mezzich JE, Okasha A, eds. Personality Disorders, 1st ed, vol. 8. West Sussex: Wiley, 2005:190-191.
146. Andrews DA, Zinger I, Hoge RD, Bontga J, Gendreau O, Cullen FT. Does correctional treatment work? A clinically relevant and psychologically informed meta-analysis. Criminology 1990;28:369-404.
147. Lösel F, Koferl P. Evaluation research on correctional treatment in West Germany: A meta-analysis. In: Wegener H, Loesel F, Haisch J, eds. Criminal Behavior and the Justice System: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Springer, 1989:334-355.
148. Lipsey MW. Juvenile delinquency treatment: A meta-analytic inquiry into the variability of effects. In: Cook RS, Cooper H, Cordray DS, Hatmann H, Hedges LV, Light RJ, Louis TA, Mosteller F, eds. Meta-analysis for Explanation. New York: Russel Sage, 1992:83-125.
149. Lipsey MW, Wilson DB. The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment: Confirmation from meta-analysis. Am Psychol 1993;48:1181-1209.
150. Rice ME, Harris G. The treatment of adult offenders. In: Stoff DM, Brieling J, Maser J, eds. Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. New York: Wiley, 1997:425-435.