Regional anaesthesia and antithrombotic agents: Recommendations of the European Society of Anaesthesiology

European Journal of Anaesthesiology

Volumn 27, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 999-1015

  Gogarten, Wiebke ^a,c   Vandermeulen, Erik ^b   Van Aken, Hugo ^c   Kozek, Sibylle ^d   Llau, Juan V ^e   Samama, Charles M ^f  

^a Krankenhaus Harlaching   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL MÜNSTER   (Germany)

^d MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

^e Department of Anaesthesiology and Postsurgical Critical Care   (Spain)

^f HÔTEL DIEU   (France)

Author keywords

Apixaban; Aspirin; Bleeding; Cilostazol; Clopidogrel; Dabigatran; Epidural; Fondaparinux; Haematoma; Heparin; Hirudin; Idrabiotaparinux; Ivaroxaban; Ow molecular weight heparin; Prasugrel; Regional anaesthesia; Spinal; Ticagrelor

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTIVITAMIN K; APIXABAN; ARGATROBAN; BRILANTA; CERTOPARIN; CILOSTAZOL; CLOPIDOGREL; COUMARIN DERIVATIVE; DABIGATRAN; DABIGATRAN ETEXILATE; DALTEPARIN; DANAPAROID; DESULFATOHIRUDIN; EFIENT; ENOXAPARIN; FONDAPARINUX; HEPARIN; IDRAPARINUX; LEPIRUDIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; NADROPARIN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OPIATE; PRASUGREL; REVIPARIN; RIVAROXABAN; TICAGRELOR; TICLOPIDINE; TINZAPARIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ANTICOAGULATION; BLEEDING; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; EPIDURAL ANESTHESIA; HEPARIN INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA; HUMAN; LUNG EMBOLISM; NEUROMONITORING; NEUTROPENIA; PATIENT MONITORING; PATIENT SAFETY; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; REGIONAL ANESTHESIA; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK FACTOR; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SPINAL ANESTHESIA; SPINAL HEMATOMA; THROMBOSIS; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; VEIN THROMBOSIS; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

ANESTHESIA, CONDUCTION; CATHETERIZATION; DEVICE REMOVAL; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS; HEMATOMA, EPIDURAL, SPINAL; HEMORRHAGE; HUMANS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 78349242482     PISSN: 02650215     EISSN: 13652346     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/EJA.0b013e32833f6f6f     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Gogarten W, Van Aken H, Wulf H, et al. Regional anaesthesia and thromboembolism prophylaxis/anticoagulation. Anaesth Intensivmed 1997; 38:623-628.
2. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ. Anticoagulation and neuraxial block: historical perspective, anesthetic implications, and risk management. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998; 23:129-134.
3. Anonymous. Belgian Guidelines concerning drug induced alterations of coagulation and central neuraxial anesthesia. Acta Anaesth Belg 2000; 51:101-104.
4. Poldermans D, Bax JJ, Boersma E, et al., (ESC) TFfPCRAaPCMiN-cSoESoC, (ESA) ESoA. Guidelines for pre-operative cardiac risk assessment and perioperative cardiac management in non-cardiac surgery: the Task Force for Preoperative Cardiac Risk Assessment and Perioperative Cardiac Management in Non-cardiac Surgery of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and endorsed by the European Society of Anaesthesiology (ESA). Eur J Anaesthesiol 2010; 27:92-137.
5. Rosencher N, Bonnet M-P, Sessler DI. Selected new antithrombotic agents and neuraxial anaesthesia for major orthopaedic surgery: management strategies. Anaesthesia 2007; 62:1154-1160.
6. Pfanner G, Koscielny J, Pernerstorfer T, et al., Austrian Society for Anaesthesia RaIC. Preoperative evaluation of the bleeding history. Recommendations of the working group on perioperative coagulation of the Austrian Society for Anaesthesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care. Anaesthesist 2007; 56:604-611.
7. Schroeder DR. Statistics: detecting a rare adverse drug reaction using spontaneous reports. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998; 23:183-189.
8. Moen V, Dahlgren N, Irestedt L. Severe neurological complications after central neuraxial blockades in Sweden 1990-1999. Anesthesiology 2004; 101:950-959.
9. Cameron CM, Scott DA, McDonald WM, Davies MJ. A review of neuraxial epidural morbidity: experience of more than 8000 cases at a single teaching hospital. Anesthesiology 2007; 106:997-1002.
10. Christie IW, McCabe S. Major complications of epidural analgesia after surgery: results of a six-year survey. Anaesthesia 2007; 62:335-341.
11. Pöpping DM, Zahn PK, Van Aken HK, et al. Effectiveness and safety of postoperative pain management: asurveyof18925 consecutive patients between 1998 and 2006 (2nd revision): a database analysis of prospectively raised data. Br J Anaesth 2008; 101 :832-840.
12. Cook T, Counsell D, Wildsmith J, Project OBOTRCOATNA. Major complicationsofcentral neuraxial block: reporton theThird National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists. Br J Anaesth 2009; 102:179-190.
13. Tyagi A, Bhattacharya A. Central neuraxial blocks and anticoagulation: a review of current trends. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2002; 19:317-329.
14. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Benzon H, et al. Regional anesthesia in the anticoagulated patient: defining the risks (the second ASRA Consensus Conference on Neuraxial Anesthesia and Anticoagulation). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003; 28:172-197.
15. Vandermeulen EP, Van Aken H, Vermylen J. Anticoagulants and spinal-epidural anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1994; 79:1165-1177.
16. Wulf H. Epidural anaesthesia and spinal haematoma. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43:1260-1271.
17. Vandermeulen E. Is anticoagulation and central neural blockade a safe combination? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 1999; 12:539-543.
18. Litz RJ, Gottschlich B, Stehr SN. Spinal epidural hematoma after spinal anesthesia in a patient treated with clopidogrel and enoxaparin. Anesthesiology 2004; 101 :1467-1470.
19. Tam NLK, Pac-Soo C, Pretorius PM. Epidural haematoma after a combined spinal-epidural anaesthetic in a patient treated with clopidogrel and dalteparin. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96:262-265.
20. Geerts W, Bergqvist D, Pineo G, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133:381S.
21. Hull R, Pineo G, MacIsaac S. Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis: preoperative versus postoperative initiation in patients undergoing elective hip surgery. Thromb Res 2000; 101 :V155-V162.
22. Strebel N, Prins M, Agnelli G, Bü'ller HR. Preoperative or postoperative start of prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism with low-molecular-weight heparin in elective hip surgery? Arch Intern Med 2002; 162:1451-1456.
23. Association of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany. German Recommendations on Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis 2009: http://leitlinien. net (accessed 7 September 2010).
24. Rao TL, El-Etr AA. Anticoagulation following placement of epidural and subarachnoid catheters: an evaluation of neurologic sequelae. Anesthesiology 1981; 55:618-620.
25. Ruff RL, Dougherty JH. Complications of lumbar puncture followed by anticoagulation. Stroke 1981; 12:879-881.
26. Stafford-Smith M. Impaired haemostasis and regional anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43:R129-R141.
27. Lee LA, Posner KL, Domino KB, et al. Injuries associated with regional anesthesia in the 1980s and 1990s: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 2004; 101:143-152.
28. Liu SS, Block BM, Wu CL. Effects of perioperative central neuraxial analgesia on outcome after coronary artery bypass surgery: a meta-analysis. Anesthesiology 2004; 101:153-161.
29. Roediger L, Larbuisson R, Lamy M. New approaches and old controversies to postoperative pain control following cardiac surgery. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2006; 23:539-550.
30. Ho AM, Chung DC, Joynt GM. Neuraxial blockade and hematoma in cardiac surgery: estimating the risk of a rare adverse event that has not (yet) occurred. Chest 2000; 117:551-555.
31. Chaney MA. Intrathecal and epidural anesthesia and analgesia for cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 1997; 84:1211-1221.
32. Gogarten W, Van Aken H, Büttner J, et al. Regional anaesthesia and thromboembolism prophylaxis/anticoagulation. Revised recommendations of the German Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine. Anaesth Intensivmed 2007; 48:S109-S124.
33. Chaney MA. Cardiac surgery and intrathecal/epidural techniques: at the crossroads? Can J Anaesth 2005; 52:783-788.
34. Samama CM, Albaladejo P, Benhamou D, etal., (SFAR) CfGPSotFSfAaIC. Venous thromboembolism prevention in surgery and obstetrics: clinical practice guidelines. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2006; 23:95-116.
35. Geerts WH, Jay RM, Code KI, etal. A comparison of low-dose heparin with low-molecular-weight heparin as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med 1996;335:701-707.
36. Warkentin TE, Levine MN, Hirsh J, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:1330-1335.
37. Weitz JI. Low-molecular-weight heparins. N Engl J Med 1997;337:688-698.
38. Sanderink G-JCM, Guimart CG, Ozoux M-L, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the prophylactic dose of enoxaparin once daily over 4 days in patients with renal impairment. Thromb Res 2002; 105:225-231.
39. Bacher P, Welzel D, Iqbal O, et al. The thrombolytic potency of LMW-heparin compared to urokinase in a rabbit jugular vein clot lysis model. Thromb Res 1992; 66:151-158.
40. Harenberg J, Huisman MV, Tolle AR, et al. Reduction in thrombus extension and clinical end points in patients after initial treatmentfor deep vein thrombosis with the fixed-dose body weight-independent low molecular weight heparin certoparin. Semin Thromb Hemost 2001; 27:513-518.
41. Bergqvist D, Lindblad B, Mätzsch T. Risk of combining low molecular weight heparin for thromboprophylaxis and epidural or spinal anesthesia. Semin Thromb Hemost 1993; 19 (Suppl 1):147-151.
42. Douketis JD, Kinnon K, Crowther MA. Anticoagulant effect at the time of epidural catheter removal in patients receiving twice-daily or once-daily low-molecular-weight heparin and continuous epidural analgesia after orthopedic surgery. Thromb Haemost 2002; 88:37-40.
43. Warkentin TE, Maurer BT, Aster RH. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia associated with fondaparinux. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:2653-2655.
44. Rota E, Bazzan M, Fantino G. Fondaparinux-related thrombocytopeniain a previous low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH)-induced heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Thromb Haemost 2008; 99:779-781.
45. Lobo B, Finch C, Howard A, Minhas S. Fondaparinux for the treatment of patients with acute heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 2008; 99:208-214.
46. Warkentin TE, Greinacher A, Koster A, Lincoff AM, Physicians ACoC. Treatment and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133:S340-S380.
47. Turpie AGG, Bauer KA, Eriksson BI, Lassen MR. Fondaparinux vs enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in major orthopedic surgery: a meta-analysis of 4 randomized double-blind studies. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162:1833-1840.
48. Boneu B, Necciari J, Cariou R, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tolerance of the natural pentasaccharide (SR90107/Org31540) with high affinity to antithrombin III in man. Thromb Haemost 1995; 74:1468-1473.
49. Singelyn FJ, Verheyen CCPM, Piovella F, et al. The safety and efficacy of extended thromboprophylaxis with fondaparinux after major orthopedic surgery of the lower limb with or without a neuraxial or deep peripheral nerve catheter: the EXPERT Study. Anesth Analg 2007; 105:1540-1547.
50. Veyrat-Follet C, Vivier N, Trellu M, et al. The pharmacokinetics of idraparinux, a long-acting indirect factor Xa inhibitor: population pharmacokinetic analysis from Phase III clinical trials. J Thromb Haemost 2009; 7:559-565.
51. Harenberg J, Vukojevic Y, Mikus G, et al. Long elimination half-life of idraparinux may explain major bleeding and recurrent events of patients from the van Gogh trials. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6:890-892.
52. Eriksson BI, Borris LC, Friedman RJ, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip arthroplasty. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:2765-2775.
53. Buller H, Lensing A, Prins M, et al. A dose-ranging study evaluating once-daily oral administration of the factor Xa inhibitor rivaroxaban in the treatment of patients with acute symptomatic deep vein thrombosis. The EINSTEIN-DVT Dose-Ranging Study. Blood 2008; 112:2242-2247.
54. Xu Q. Xarelto (Rivaroxaban). Cardiovascular and Renal Drugs Advisory Committee Meeting; 19 March 2009. FDA Cardiovascular and Renal Drugs 2009.
55. Weitz JI, Hirsh J, Samama MM, Physicians ACoC. New antithrombotic drugs: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133:234S-256S. (Pubitemid 351892968)
56. Lassen MR, Raskob GE, Gallus A, et al. Apixaban or enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after knee replacement. N Engl J Med 2009; 361 :594-604.
57. Group TS. Thromboprophylaxis in hip fracture surgery: a pilot study comparing danaparoid, enoxaparin and dalteparin. The TIFDED Study Group. Haemostasis 1999; 29:310-317.
58. Danhof M, de Boer A, Magnani HN, Stiekema JC. Pharmacokinetic considerations on Orgaran (Org 10172) therapy. Haemostasis 1992; 22:73-84.
59. Schrör K. Antiplatelet drugs. A comparative review. Drugs 1995; 50:728.
60. Verstraete M, Nurmohamed M, Kienast J, et al. Biologic effects of recombinant hirudin (CGP 39393) in human volunteers. European Hirudin in Thrombosis Group. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;22:1080-1088.
61. Eriksson BI, Ekman S, Kalebo P, et al. Prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after total hip replacement: direct thrombin inhibition with recombinant hirudin, CGP 39393. Lancet 1996; 347:635-639.
62. Eichler P, Friesen HJ, Lubenow N, et al. Antihirudin antibodies in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia treated with lepirudin: incidence, effects on aPTT, and clinical relevance. Blood 2000; 96:2373-2378.
63. Poidevin P, Salomé V, Riegel B, et al. Recombinant hirudin in neurosurgery. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 2001; 20:570-572.
64. Yeh RW, Jang I-K. Argatroban: update. Am Heart J 2006; 151 :1131-1138.
65. Stangier J. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the oral direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran etexilate. Clin Pharmacokinetics 2008; 47:285-295. (Pubitemid 351508116)
66. Eriksson B, Dahl O, Rosencher N, et al., Group ftR-MS. Oral dabigatran etexilate vs. subcutaneous enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total knee replacement: the RE-MODEL randomized trial. JThromb Haemost 2007; 5:2178-2185.
67. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Schlichting JL. Postoperative epidural analgesia and oral anticoagulant therapy. Anesth Analg 1994; 79:89-93.
68. Odoom JA, Sih IL. Epidural analgesia and anticoagulant therapy. Experience with one thousand cases of continuous epidurals. Anaesthesia 1983; 38:254-259.
69. FitzGerald G, Oates J, Hawiger J, et al. Endogenous biosynthesis of prostacyclin and thromboxane and platelet function during chronic administration of aspirin in man. J Clin Invest 1983; 71 :676-688. (Pubitemid 13160815)
70. Gibbs NM, Weightman WM, Thackray NM, et al. The effects of recent aspirin ingestion on platelet function in cardiac surgical patients. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2001; 15:55-59.
71. Serebruany VL, Steinhubl SR, Berger PB, et al. Analysis of risk of bleeding complications after different doses of aspirin in 192 036 patients enrolled in 31 randomized controlled trials. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95:1218-1222.
72. McQuaid KR, Laine L. Systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse events oflow-dose aspirin and clopidogrel in randomized controlled trials. Am J Med 2006; 119:624-638.
73. Ferraris VA, Ferraris SP, Joseph O, et al. Aspirin and postoperative bleeding after coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Surg 2002; 235:820-827.
74. Burger W, Chemnitius J-M, Kneissl GD, Rücker G. Low-dose aspirin for secondary cardiovascular prevention: cardiovascular risks after its perioperative withdrawal versus bleeding risks with its continuation: review and meta-analysis. J Intern Med 2005; 257:399-414.
75. CLASP: a randomised trial of low-dose aspirin for the prevention and treatment of pre-eclampsia among 9364 pregnant women. CLASP (Collaborative Low-dose Aspirin Study in Pregnancy) Collaborative Group. Lancet 1994; 343:619-629.
76. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Schroeder DR, et al. Preoperative antiplatelet therapy does not increase the risk of spinal hematoma associated with regional anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1995; 80:303-309.
77. Horlocker TT, Bajwa ZH, AshrafZ, et al. Risk assessment of hemorrhagic complications associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medications in ambulatory pain clinic patients undergoing epidural steroid injection. Anesth Analg 2002; 95:1691-1697.
78. Cronberg S, Wallmark E, Söderberg I. Effect on platelet aggregation of oral administration of 10 non-steroidal analgesics to humans. Scand J Haematol 1984; 33:155-159.
79. Catella-Lawson F, Reilly MP, Kapoor SC, et al. Cyclooxygenase inhibitors and the antiplatelet effects of aspirin. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1809-1817.
80. Patrono C, Baigent C, Hirsh J, Roth G, Physicians ACoC. Antiplatelet drugs: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133:199S-233S. (Pubitemid 351894914)
81. Ferrari E, Benhamou M, Cerboni P, Marcel B. Coronary syndromes following aspirin withdrawal: a special risk for late stent thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45:456-459.
82. Collet J, Montalescot G, Blanchet B, et al. Impact of prior use or recent withdrawal of oral antiplatelet agents on acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2004; 110:2361-2367.
83. Herren T, Stricker H, Haeberli A, et al. Fibrin formation and degradation in patients with arteriosclerotic disease. Circulation 1994; 90:2679-2686.
84. Fleisher LA, Beckman JA, Brown KA, etal. ACC/AHA2007 Guidelines on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation and Care for Noncardiac Surgery: Executive Summary. Circulation 2007; 116:1971-1996.
85. Douketis JD, Berger PB, Dunn AS, et al., Physicians ACoC. The perioperative management of antithrombotic therapy: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133:299S-339S.
86. Sharis PJ, Cannon CP, Loscalzo J. The antiplatelet effects of ticlopidine and clopidogrel. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129:394-405.
87. Weber AA, Schrör K. Pharmacology of ticlopidine and clopidogrel in comparison with acetylsalicylic acid. Internist (Berl) 1997; 38:1115-1120.
88. Buur T, Larsson R, Berglund U, et al. Pharmacokinetics and effect of ticlopidine on platelet aggregation in subjects with normal and impaired renal function. J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 37:108-115.
89. Denninger MH, Necciari J, Serre-Lacroix E, Sissmann J. Clopidogrel antiplatelet activity is independent of ageand presence of atherosclerosis. Semin Thromb Hemost 1999; 25 (Suppl 2):41-45.
90. Englberger L, Faeh B, Berdat PA, et al. Impact of clopidogrel in coronary artery bypass grafting. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2004; 26:96-101.
91. Kapetanakis EI, Medlam DA, Petro KR, et al. Effect of clopidogrel premedication in off-pump cardiac surgery: are we forfeiting the benefits of reduced hemorrhagic sequelae? Circulation 2006; 113:1667-674.
92. Purkayastha S, Athanasiou T, Malinovski V, et al. Does clopidogrel affect outcome after coronary artery bypass grafting? A meta-analysis. Heart 2006; 92:531-532.
93. Committee CS. Arandomised, blinded, trial of Clopidogrel versus Aspirin in Patients at Risk of Ischaemic Events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet 1996; 348:1329-1339.
94. Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Peters RJ, et al., Investigators CiUatpREtC. Effects of pretreatmentwith clopidogrel and aspirin followed bylong-term therapyin patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the PCI-CURE study. Lancet 2001; 358:527-533.
95. Wilson SH, Fasseas P, Orford JL, et al. Clinical outcome of patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery in the two months following coronary stenting. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42:234-240.
96. Vicenzi MN, Meislitzer T, Heitzinger B, et al. Coronary artery stenting and non-cardiac surgery: a prospective outcome study. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96:686-693.
97. Joner M, Finn A, Farb A, etal. Pathology of drug-eluting stents in humans: delayed healing and late thrombotic risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48:193-202.
98. Grines CL, Bonow RO, Casey DE, et al. Prevention of premature discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronaryartery stents. Circulation 2007; 115:813-818.
99. Angiolillo DJ, BhattDL, Gurbel PA, Jennings LK. Advances in antiplatelet therapy: agents in clinical development. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103:40A-51A.
100. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2007; 357:2001-2015. (Pubitemid 350106708)
101. Gurbel PA, Bliden KP, Butler K, et al. Randomized Double-Blind Assessment of the ONSET and OFFSET of the Antiplatelet Effects of Ticagrelor Versus Clopidogrel in Patients With Stable Coronary Artery Disease. Randomized Double-Blind Assessment of the ONSET and OFFSET of the Antiplatelet Effects of Ticagrelor Versus Clopidogrel in Patients With Stable Cornonary Disease: the ONSET/OFFSET Study. Circulation 2009; 120:2577-2585.
102. Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361:1045 1057.
103. Schror K. The pharmacology of cilostazol. Diabetes Obes Metab2002; 4 (Suppl 2):S14-S19.
104. Woo SK, Kang WK, Kwon KI. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modeling of the antiplatelet and cardiovascular effects of cilostazol in healthy humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002; 71 :246-252.
105. Sobel M, Verhaeghe R. Antithrombotic therapy for peripheral artery occlusive disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence- Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133:815S-843S.
106. Lee SW, Chun KJ, Park SW, et al. Comparison of Triple Antiplatelet Therapy and Dual Antiplatelet Therapy in Patients at High Risk of Restenosis After Drug-Eluting Stent Implantation (from the DECLARE-DIABETES and LONG Trials). Am J Cardiol 2010; 105:168-173.
107. Chen K-Y, Rha S-W, Li Y-J, et al., Investigators KAMIR. Triple versus dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Circulation 2009; 119:3207-3214.
108. Woo SK, Kang WK, Kwon K-I. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modeling of the antiplatelet and cardiovascular effects of cilostazol in healthy humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002; 71 :246-252.
109. Llau JV, Ferrandis R. New anticoagulants and regional anesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesth 2009; 22:661-666.
110. Kaneda T, Urimoto G, Suzuki T. Spinal epidural hematoma following epidural catheter removal during antiplatelet therapy with cilostazol. J Anesth 2008; 22:290-293.
111. Butler J, Leonard BE. The platelet serotonergic system in depression and following sertraline treatment. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1988; 3:343 347.
112. Helmeste DM, Tang SW, Reist C, Vu R. Serotonin uptake inhibitors modulate intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in platelets. Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 288:373-377.
113. Markovitz JH, Shuster JL, Chitwood WS, et al. Platelet activation in depression and effects of sertraline treatment: an open-label study. Am J Psychiatry 1006-; 157:8.
114. Norred CL, Finlayson CA. Hemorrhage after the preoperative use of complementary and alternative medicines. AANA J 2000; 68:217-220.
115. Sewnath ME, van Hillegersberg R, Koopman MM, et al. Increased perioperative blood loss during treatment with paroxetine. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2002; 146:1800-1802.
116. Turner MS, May DB, Arthur RR, Xiong GL. Clinical impact of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors therapy with bleeding risks. J Intern Med 2007; 261:205-213.
117. Movig KL, Janssen MW, de Waal Malefijt J, et al. Relationship of serotonergic antidepressants and need for blood transfusion in orthopedic surgical patients. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:2354-2358.
118. Andreasen JJ, Riis A, Hjortdal VE, et al. Effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on requirement for allogeneic red blood cell transfusion following coronary artery bypass surgery. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2006; 6:243-250.
119. Kim DH, Daskalakis C, Whellan DJ, et al. Safety of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in adults undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103:1391-1395.
120. Schalekamp T, Klungel OH, Souverein PC, de Boer A. Increased bleeding risk with concurrent use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and coumarins. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168:180-185.
121. Wallerstedt SM, Gleerup H, Sundstrom A, et al. Risk of clinically relevant bleeding in warfarin-treated patients: influence of SSRI treatment. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2009; 18:412-416.
122. Mansour A, Pearce M, Johnson B, et al. Which patients taking SSRIs are at greatest risk of bleeding? J Fam Pract 2006; 55:206-208.
123. Bhatt DL, Topol EJ. Currentrole of platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIainhibitors in acute coronary syndromes. JAMA 2000; 284:1549-1558.
124. Coller BS. Anti-GPIIb/IIIa drugs: current strategies and future directions. Thromb Haemost 2001; 86:427-443.
125. Harrington RA, Armstrong PW, Graffagnino C, et al. Dose-finding, safety, and tolerability study of an oral platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor, lotrafiban, in patients with coronary or cerebral atherosclerotic disease. Circulation 2000; 102:728-735.
126. Brown DL, Fann CS, Chang CJ. Meta-analysis of effectiveness and safety of abciximab versus eptifibatide or tirofiban in percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Cardiol 2001; 87:537-541.
127. Gogarten W. The influence of new antithrombotic drugs on regional anesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006; 19:545-550.
128. Smith RE, Bodin CJ, Kogutt MS. Recent epidural anesthesia: a relative contraindication to thrombolysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169:445 446.
129. Dickman CA, Shedd SA, Spetzler RF, et al. Spinal epidural hematoma associated with epidural anesthesia: complications of systemic heparinization in patients receiving peripheral vascular thrombolytic therapy. Anesthesiology 1990; 72:947-950.
130. Onishchuk JL, Carlsson C. Epidural hematoma associated with epidural anesthesia: complications of anticoagulant therapy. Anesthesiology 1992; 77:1221-1223.
131. RabitoSF,AhmedS,FeinsteinL,WinnieAP.Intrathecal bleeding after the intraoperative use of heparin and urokinase during continuous spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg1996; 82:409-411.
132. Wang S-M, Caldwell-Andrews AA, Kain ZN. The use of complementary and alternative medicines by surgical patients: a follow-up survey study. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:1010-1015.
133. Fugh-Berman A. Herb-drug interactions. Lancet 2000; 355:134-138.
134. Farah MH, Edwards R, Lindquist M, et al. International monitoring of adverse health effects associated with herbal medicines. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2000; 9:105-112.
135. Rose KD, Croissant PD, Parliament CF, Levin MB. Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma with associated platelet dysfunction from excessive garlic ingestion: a case report. Neurosurgery1990; 26:880-882.
136. Köhler S, Funk P, Kieser M. Influence of a 7-day treatment with Ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 on bleeding time and coagulation: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study in healthy volunteers. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2004; 15:303-309.
137. Weller RS, Gerancher JC, Crews JC, Wade KL. Extensive retroperitoneal hematoma without neurologic deficit in two patients who underwent lumbar plexus block and were later anticoagulated. Anesthesiology 2003; 98:581-585.
138. Aveline C, Bonnet F. Delayed retroperitoneal haematoma after failed lumbar plexus block. Br J Anaesth 2004; 93:589-591.
139. Maier C, Gleim M, Weiss T, et al. Severe bleeding following lumbar sympathetic blockade in two patients under medication with irreversible platelet aggregation inhibitors. Anesthesiology 2002; 97:740-743.
140. Büttner J, Burkle H, Gogarten W, Wulf H. Thromboembolism prophylaxis and peripheral nerve blocks for regional anaesthesia. Guideline of the German Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine. Anaesth Intensivmed 2005; 46:319-322.
141. Kozek-Langenecker SA, Fries D, Gütl M, et al. Locoregional anesthesia and coagulation inhibitors. Recommendations of the Task Force on Perioperative Coag lation of the A strian Society for Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine. Anaesthesist 2005; 54:476-484.
142. Lawton MT, Porter RW, Heiserman JE, et al. Surgical management of spinal epidral hematoma: relationship between surgical timing and ne rological otcome. J Neurosurg 1995; 83:1-7.
143. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Rowlingson JC, et al. Regional anesthesia in the patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine Evidence-Based G idelines (Third Edition). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010; 35:64-101.