The problem of raccoon intelligence in behaviourist America

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 391-421

  Pettit, Michael ^a  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 78049281997     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: 1474001X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087409990677     Document Type: Review

References (250)

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61. Katherine C. Grier, Pets in America: A History, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
62. See 'A raccoon in the lockup', Los Angeles Times, 22 October 1899, p. 13;
63. 'This raccoon took a Sunday off', New York Times, 11 February 1901, p. 1;
64. 'Burglar was pet coon', New York Times, 3 June 1905, p. 9;
65. 'Coon in role of robber', Washington Post, 11 February 1907, p. 5;
66. 'Police on a coon hunt', New York Times, 9August 1908, p. 7;
67. 'A coon hunt over the roofs of Washington', Washington Post, 6 September 1908, p. 8;
68. 'Coon on high Portland building', Boston Daily Globe, 20 October 1908;
69. 'Coon chase in New York', Washington Post, 23 October 1908, p. 6.
70. 'Smart raccoons : are trained to clean chimneys and owner is getting rich', Washington Post, 13 October 1906, p. 6.
71. 'Coolidge gets a raccoon', New York Times, 27 November 1926, p. 4;
72. 'Coolidge "Coon" gets ribbon and is now named Rebecca', New York Times, 25 December 1926, p. 2;
73. 'Coolidge pets could make zoo of their own', New York Times, 28 August 1927, p. 2.
74. 'Coons and green corn: how Connecticut farmers get even with the poultry thief', New York Times, 27 August 1884, p. 3.
75. 'Hunting the raccoon', Washington Post, 28 November 1897, p. 26;
76. 'Sport of coon hunting', Chicago Tribune, 11 November 1900, p. 20.
77. J.E. Williams, Night Hunting, Jackson: McCowat-Mercer, 1911, pp. 22-23.
78. 'Coon hunting and the S.P.C.A.', New York Times, 26 March 1905, p. 8.
79. 'Coons and coon-hunting: a New-Hampshire expert describes the animal and the sport', New York Times, 13 April 1884, p. 5.
80. On the encounter with extinction in nineteenth-century America see Jennifer Price, Flight Maps: Adventures with Nature in Modern America, New York: Basic Books, 1999, pp. 1-57;
81. Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750 - 1920, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
82. L.W. Cole, 'Concerning the intelligence of raccoons', Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology (1907) 17, pp. 211-261;
83. H.B. Davis, 'The raccoon: a study in animal intelligence', American Journal of Psychology (1907) 18, pp. 447-489.
84. On pre-Darwinian comparative psychology see Robert J. Richards, Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 20-70.
85. On the early modern denial of animal psychology see Erica Fudge, Brutal Reasoning: Animals, Rationality, and Humanity in Early Modern England, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006.
86. Douglas A. Spalding, 'On instinct', Nature (1872) 6, pp. 485-486;
87. idem, ' Instinct: with original observations on young animals', Macmillan's Magazine (1873) 27, pp. 282-293.
88. See Philip Howard Gray, 'Spalding and his influence on research in developmental behavior', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (1967) 3, pp. 168-179.
89. As Roger K. Thomas has pointed out, the ideal of parsimony was not Morgan's true intention, although it was a telling misreading that predominated in debates among comparative psychologists. See Roger K. Thomas, 'Recurring errors among recent history of psychology textbooks', American Journal of Psychology (2007) 120, pp. 477-495, pp. 483-487.
90. Boakes, op. cit. (14), pp. 2-52
91. On the Victorian debates over animal language see David A. Valone, 'Language, race, and history: the origin of the Whitney-Müller debate and the transformation of the human sciences', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (1996) 32, pp. 119-134;
92. Greg Radick, 'Morgan's canon, Garner's phonograph, and the evolutionary origins of language and reason', BJHS (2000) 33, pp. 3-23;
93. idem, The Simian Tongue: The Long Debate about Animal Language, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
94. On the relationship between animal psychology and physiology see Schloegel and Schmidgen, op. cit. (15);
95. Paul S. White, 'The experimental animal in Victorian Britain', in Daston and Mitman, op. cit. (7), pp. 59-81.
96. E.L. Thorndike, 'Animal intelligence: an experimental study of the associative processes in animals', Psychological Monographs (1898) 2.
97. Henderikus J. Stam and Tanya Kalmanovitch, 'E.L. Thorndike and the origins of animal psychology: on the nature of the animal in psychology', American Psychologist (1998) 53, pp. 1135-1144.
98. See Wesley Mills, 'The nature of animal intelligence and the methods of investigating it ', Psychological Review (1899) 3, pp. 262-274, p. 266.
99. E.L. Thorndike, 'The mental life of the monkeys', Psychological Monographs (1901), 3;
100. A.J. Kinnaman, 'Mental life of two Macacus Rhesus monkeys in captivity', American Journal of Psychology (1902) 13, pp. 98-148 and pp. 173-218.
101. Willard S. Small, 'An experimental study of the mental processes of the white rat. II ', American Journal of Psychology (1901) 12, pp. 206-239;
102. John B. Watson, 'Animal education: an experimental study on the psychical development of the white rat, correlated with the growth of its nervous system', Ph.D dissertation, University of Chicago, 1903. It should be noted that Small emphasized the existence of what he called a 'psycho-biological character' specific to each species.
103. Franz Samelson, 'Struggle for scientific authority: the reception of Watson's behaviorism, 1913-1920', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (1981) 17, pp. 399-425.
104. John Carson, The Measure of Merit: Talents, Intelligence, and Inequality in the French and American Republics, 1750 - 1940, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007, pp. 170-171.
105. Simon Schaffer, 'Babbage's intelligence: calculating engines and the factory system', Critical Inquiry (1994) 21, pp. 203-227.
106. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 448.
107. Lawrence Cole to Robert M. Yerkes, 10 April 1906, Robert M. Yerkes Papers, Yale University Library, Box 11, Folder 186.
108. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 452.
109. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 465.
110. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 468.
111. Davis, op. cit. (35), pp. 452-453.
112. Karl Groos, The Play of Animals (tr. Elizabeth L. Baldwin), New York: Appleton, 1898, p. 214. Baldwin edited this volume and wrote a preface highlighting the book's affinities with his own theory of organic selection.
113. G. Stanley Hall and Theodora L. Smith, 'Curiosity and interest', Pedagogy Seminary (1903) 10, pp. 315-358, p. 353.
114. On the psychology of attention see Jonathan Crary, Suspensions of Attention, New York: Zone Books, 1999;
115. Sven Lüders, 'The "fluctuations of attention" between physiology, experimental psychology and psycho-technical application', in Mitchell Ash and Thomas Sturm (eds.), Psychology's Territories: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives from Different Disciplines, Mahwah, NJ, 2007, pp. 31-50.
116. Even Groos conceded that his fellow German naturalists held that the raccoon was 'curious to the last degree'. See Groos, op. cit. (55), p. 217.
117. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 486.
118. L.W. Cole, 'Observation of the senses and instincts of the raccoon', Journal of Animal Behavior (1912) 2, pp. 299-309, p. 308.
119. Cole, op. cit. (59), p. 300.
120. Cole, op. cit. (35), p. 237.
121. Cole to Yerkes, 10 December 1905, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 186.
122. Cole, op. cit. (35), p. 242.
123. Cole, op. cit. (35), pp. 232-234.
124. W.T. Shepherd, 'Imitation in raccoons', American Journal of Psychology (1911) 22, pp. 583-585
125. On Davis's inability to elicit imitative behaviour see Davis, op. cit. (35), pp. 482-485.
126. H.S. Jennings, 'Recent work on the behavior of higher animals', American Naturalist (1908) 42, pp. 207-216, p. 213.
127. R.M. Yerkes, 'Recent progress and present tendencies in comparative psychology', Journal of Abnormal Psychology (1908) 2, pp. 271-279, p. 277.
128. For Yerkes's work on animal ideational behaviour, see Shae E. Trewin, 'Robert Yerkes' multiple-choice apparatus, 1913-1939', American Journal of Psychology (2007) 120, pp. 645-660.
129. Theodore Roosevelt, 'Nature fakers', Everybody's Magazine (1907) 17, pp. 427-430.
130. On Barnum's connection to nineteenth-century natural history see Michael Pettit, ' "The joy in believing" : the Cardiff Giant, commercial deceptions, and styles of observation in Gilded Age America', Isis (2006) 97, pp. 659-677.
131. John Burroughs, 'Real and sham natural history', Atlantic Monthly (March 1903) 91, pp. 298-309.
132. The definitive account of this chapter in American natural history is Ralph H. Lutts, The Nature Fakers: Wildlife, Science, and Sentiment, Golden, Co: Fulcrum Press, 1990.
133. Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001, pp. 141-160;
134. William Cronon, 'The trouble with wilderness : or, getting back to the wrong Nature', Environmental History (1996) 1, pp. 7-28, pp. 13-16.
135. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt, 'Nature, not books: scientists and the origins of the Nature-Study Movement in the 1890s', Isis (2005) 96, pp. 324-352.
136. On the growth of animal biographies see Bernard Lightman, Victorian Popularizers of Science: Designing Nature for New Audiences, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, pp. 442-449.
137. On the evolutionary epic see James A. Secord, Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
138. For biographical information on Long see Lutts, op. cit. (71), pp. 55-60;
139. Mitman, op. cit. (7), pp. 10-12;
140. David Mazel, A Century of Early Ecocriticism, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001, pp. 113-114.
141. William J. Long, School of the Woods, Boston: Ginn and Co., 1902.
142. William J. Long, A Little Brother to the Bear and other Animal Studies, Boston: Ginn and Co., 1903, pp. 217-238.
143. On the theological underpinnings of Long's natural history see Lutts, op. cit. (71), pp. 157-158.
144. John Burroughs, 'Machines in fur and feathers', The Independent, 12 March 1908, pp. 570-574, p. 571.
145. 'John Burroughs supports the president', New York Times Sunday Magazine, 9 June 1907, p. 2.
146. William J. Long, 'The modern school of nature-study and its critics ', North American Review (May 1903) 176, pp. 688-698;
147. idem, 'Science, nature, and criticism', Science, 13 May 1904, 19, pp. 760-767.
148. Long, op. cit. (76), p. 9.
149. ' " I propose to smoke Roosevelt out" - Dr Long', New York Times Sunday Magazine, 2 June 1907, p. 2.
150. On the naturalist's shift from the gun to the camera see Mitman, op. cit. (7), pp. 5-25.
151. 'Animals disprove both Burroughs and Long', New York Sunday Times Magazine, 16 June 1907, p. 2.
152. See Dallas Lore Sharp, Roof and Meadow, New York: Century, 1904;
153. Charles C.D. Roberts, The Watchers of the Trails: A Book of Animal Life, New York: A. Wessels Co., 1906.
154. Roberts, op. cit. (85), p. 223;
155. Long, op. cit. (76), p. 34.
156. Long, op. cit. (76), p. 226.
157. H.B. Davis, Review of 'Concerning the intelligence of raccoons.' By L.W. Cole, Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, 7 May 1908, 5, pp. 278-279.
158. Long, op. cit. (76), p. 40.
159. John Burroughs, 'Untaught wisdom', Outlook, 2 May 1908, 89, pp. 34-37, p. 37.
160. Cole to Yerkes, 14 February 1907, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 186.
161. 'A study of "coons" ', New York Daily Tribune, 5 August 1906, p. 2;
162. 'A study of "coons", Forest and Stream, 12 October 1907, 69, p. 573;
163. 'Raccoon brains', San Francisco Call - Junior Section, 6 March 1909, p. 1.
164. W.T. Shepherd, 'The discrimination of articulate sounds by raccoons', American Journal of Psychology (1911) 22, pp. 116-119.
165. Photograph, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 186.
166. On corporeal violence such as whipping and beating during the experiments see Cole, op. cit. (35), p. 250;
167. and Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 461.
168. For the antivivisectionist criticisms of Watson see Donald A. Dewsbury, 'Early interactions between animal psychologists and animal activists and the founding of the APA Committee on Precautions in Animal Experimentation', American Psychologist (1990) 45, pp. 315-327, pp. 320-322.
169. William T. Hornaday, 'The psychology of wild animals', McClure's Magazine (February 1908) 30, p. 469.
170. Lightner Witmer, 'A monkey with a mind', Psychological Clinic (1909) 3, pp. 179-209.
171. For more on Peter and the reception of this research see Douglas Keither Candland, Feral Children and Clever Animals: Reflections on Human Nature, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 196-207;
172. Donald A. Dewsbury, 'Samuel Fernberger's rejected doctoral dissertation: a neglected resource for the history of ape research in America', History of Psychology (2009) 12, pp. 1-6.
173. Cole, op. cit. (35), pp. 211-212;
174. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 462.
175. Robert M. Yerkes, The Dancing Mouse: A Study of Animal Behavior, New York: Macmillan Co., 1907, p. vii.
176. See Edward T. Heyn, 'Hans, the wonderful horse of Berlin', McClure's Magazine (May 1905) 25, pp. 84-92;
177. Joseph Jastrow, 'Fact and fable in animal psychology', Popular Science Monthly (1906) 69, pp. 138-146.
178. On Jastrow's career-long concern with deception and debunking see Michael Pettit, 'Joseph Jastrow, the psychology of deception, and the racial economy of observation', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (2007) 43, pp. 159-175.
179. J.B.W., Review of Oskar Pfungst, Das Pferd des Herrn von Osten (Der kluge Hans), Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology (1908) 3, pp. 329-331, p. 331.
180. See 'The animal mind under scrutiny', New York Times, 21 March 1908, p. 153.
181. E.T. Brewster, 'The animal mind from the inside', McClure's Magazine (June 1909) 33, pp. 150-157, p. 152.
182. Brewster, op. cit. (104), p. 150.
183. E.T. Brewster, 'Studying the animal mind in laboratories', McClure's Magazine (August 1909) 33, pp. 383-387, p. 387.
184. Cole, op. cit. (35), p. 217.
185. John B. Watson, 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it ', Psychological Review (1913) 20, pp. 158-177.
186. On American functionalism see John D. Greenwood, 'Mechanism, purpose and progress : Darwin and early American psychology', History of the Human Sciences (2008) 21, pp. 103-126.
187. On the early twentieth-century geography of animal psychology see Jennings, op. cit. (66), pp. 207-208.
188. Walter S. Hunter, 'The delayed reaction in animals and children', Behavior Monographs (1913) 2, pp. 1-86, p. 1.
189. Walter S. Hunter, 'Walter S. Hunter', in Edwin G. Boring (ed.), History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol.4, Worcester, MA: Clark University Press, 1952, pp. 163-187, p. 166.
190. Hunter, op. cit. (111), pp. 21-22.
191. Hunter, op. cit. (111), pp. iii, 85-86.
192. Hunter, op. cit. (111), pp. 46-47.
193. Hunter op. cit. (111), p. 71.
194. Hunter, op. cit. (111), p. 69.
195. Hunter, op. cit. (111), pp. 75-78;
196. Walter S. Hunter, 'A reply to Professor Cole', Journal of Animal Behavior (1915), 5, p. 406;
197. idem, General Psychology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1923, p. 38.
198. 'Structuralist' psychologists, namely Cornell University's E.B. Titchener, had argued that consciousness consisted of three 'elements' : sensations, feelings and images. In contrast, in the early twentieth century, Oswald Külpe's 'Würzburg school' proposed the addition of a fourth category, imageless thoughts. The resulting controversy was a major intellectual impetus for the rise of Watsonian behaviourism. On the debate concerning imageless thought see Deborah J. Coon, 'Standardizing the subject: experimental psychologists, introspection, and the quest for a technoscientific ideal', Technology and Culture (1993), 34, pp. 757-783.
199. Hunter, op. cit. (111), p. 15.
200. Cole, op. cit. (35), pp. 226-232;
201. L.W. Cole and F.M. Long, 'Visual discrimination in raccoons', Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology (1909) 19, pp. 657-683.
202. F.M. Gregg and C.A. McPheeters, 'Behavior of raccoons to a temporal series of stimuli', Journal of Animal Behavior (1913) 3, pp. 241-259.
203. Cole to Yerkes, 15 August 1914, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 188.
204. L.W. Cole, 'The Chicago experiments with raccoons', Journal of Animal Behavior (1915) 5, pp. 158-173, p. 159, original emphasis.
205. Cole, op. cit. (123), pp. 161-162.
206. Cole to Yerkes, 14 September 1914, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 188.
207. Hunter, op. cit. (111), p. 86.
208. Davis, op. cit. (35), p. 485.
209. Cole to Yerkes, 10 April 1906, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 186.
210. Cole to Yerkes, 14 February 1907, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 186.
211. Shepherd, op. cit. (93), p. 119.
212. Yerkes, op. cit. (100), p. vii.
213. John B. Watson, Behavior : An Introduction to Comparative Psychology, New York: Holt, 1914, p. 227. For example, see the charges of fraud that accompanied R.L. Garner's claims about a simian tongue during the 1890s;
214. see Radick, 'Morgan's canon', op. cit. (39), pp. 19-20.
215. Wolfgang Köhler, Gestalt Psychology, New York: Liveright, 1929, pp. 276-280.
216. On the production of ignorance in science see Robert N. Proctor and Londa Schiebinger (eds.), Agnotology: The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008.
217. D.E. Berlyne, 'Novelty and curiosity as determinants of exploratory behaviour', British Journal of Psychology (1950) 41, pp. 68-80;
218. idem, Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.
219. John B. Watson, 'Kinaesthetic and organic sensations: their role in the reactions of the white rat to the maze', Psychological Monographs (1907) 8, pp. 1-100;
220. John B. Watson and Harvey A. Carr, 'Orientation of the white rat', Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology (1908) 18, pp. 27-44.
221. For the precedent of Cole and Davis see W.I. Welker and S. Seidenstein, 'Somatic sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of the raccoon (Procyon Lotor)', Journal of Comparative Neurology (1959) 111, pp. 469-501, p. 470.
222. See also W.I. Welker and S. Seidenstein, 'External morphology of the cerebral cortex of the raccoon (Procyon-Lotor) in relationship to development of sensory receiving areas', Anatomical Record (1958) 130, pp. 387-388;
223. B.H. Pubols Jr, W.I. Welker and J.I. Johnson Jr, 'Somatic sensory representation of forelimb in dorsal root fibers of raccoon, coatimundi, and cat', Journal of Neurophysiology (1965) 28, pp. 312-341;
224. J.I. Johnson Jr, W.I. Welker and B.H. Pubols, Jr, 'Somatotopic organization of raccoon dorsal column nuclei', Journal of Comparative Neurology (1968) 132, pp. 1-44.
225. O'Donnell, op. cit. (14), pp. 200-207.
226. See James T. Todd and Edward K. Morris, 'The early research of John B. Watson: before the behavioral revolution', Behavior Analyst (1986) 9, pp. 71-88.
227. Donald A. Dewsbury, 'Triumph and tribulation in the history of American comparative psychology', Journal of Comparative Psychology (1992) 106, pp. 3-19.
228. L.N. Wilson, Clark University Directory of Alumni, Faculty and Students, Worchester, MA: Clark University Press, 1915, p. 17.
229. Cole to Yerkes, 15 May 1908, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 187.
230. David Chiszar and Michael Wertheimer, 'The Boulder model: a history of psychology at the University of Colorado', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (1988) 24, pp. 81-86.
231. Yerkes to Cole, 10 October 1912, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 188.
232. Hunter to Yerkes, 16 November 1950, Yerkes Papers, Box 27, Folder 491.
233. Hunter, op. cit. (112), p. 172.
234. See Walter S. Hunter, 'The behavior of raccoons in a double alternation temporal maze', Journal of Genetic Psychology (1928) 35, pp. 374-388;
235. Norman L. Munn, 'Pattern and brightness discrimination in raccoons', Journal of Genetic Psychology (1930) 37, pp. 3-34.
236. Cole to Yerkes, 14 March 1934, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 189.
237. See Weidman, op. cit. (14), pp. 160-186.
238. Walter S. Hunter and E. Sommermeier, 'The relation of degree of Indian blood to score on the Otis Intelligence Test', Journal of Comparative Psychology (1922) 2, pp. 257-277.
239. See Marion Thomas, 'Yerkes, Hamilton and the experimental study of the ape mind: from evolutionary psychiatry to eugenics politics', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences (2006) 37, pp. 273-294.
240. Yerkes to Josephine Ball, 20 November 1925, Yerkes Papers, Box 4, Folder 55.
241. Ball to Yerkes, 24 February 1930, Yerkes Papers, Box 4, Folder 55.
242. Yerkes to Ball, 13 March 1930, Yerkes Papers, Box 4, Folder 55.
243. Ball to Yerkes, 1 March 1926, Yerkes Papers, Box 4, Folder 55.
244. On Beach's early experience with rats see Frank A. Beach, 'Frank A. Beach', in Gardner Lindzey (ed.), A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol.6, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974, pp. 33-58, p. 35.
245. As a graduate student, Karl Lashley's decidedly non-behaviourist perspective had a tremendous influence on Beach's intellectual pursuits. See Donald A. Dewsbury, 'The Chicago Five: a family of integrative psychobiologists', History of Psychology (2002) 5, pp. 16-37.
246. On the study of animal behaviour at the American Museum of Natural History see Gregg Mitman, 'Cinematic nature: Hollywood technology, popular culture, and the American Museum of Natural History', Isis (1993) 84, pp. 637-661.
247. Leon F. Whitney, 'The raccoon: some mental attributes', Journal of Mammalogy (1933) 14, pp. 108-114, p. 112.
248. See also idem, 'The raccoon and its hunting', Journal ofMammalogy (1931) 12, pp. 29-38.
249. Leon F. Whitney and Acil B. Underwood, The Raccoon, Orange, CT: Practical Science Publishing Co., 1952, p. 127, p. 137.
250. Yerkes to Cole, 5 March 1934, Yerkes Papers, Box 11, Folder 189.