Legal Mobilization in Schools: The Paradox of Rights and Race Among Youth

Law and Society Review

Volumn 44, Issue 3-4, 2010, Pages 651-694

  Morrill, Calvin ^a   Tyson, Karolyn ^a   Edelman, Lauren B ^b   Arum, Richard ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^c New York Universityv ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; ASIAN AMERICAN; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CIVIL RIGHTS; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; HISPANIC; HISTORY; HUMAN; JURISPRUDENCE; LEGAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PROBLEM; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY; AFRICAN AMERICANS; ASIAN AMERICANS; CIVIL RIGHTS; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; HISPANIC AMERICANS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; JUDICIAL ROLE; JURISPRUDENCE; RACE RELATIONS; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 77958577396     PISSN: 00239216     EISSN: 15405893     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5893.2010.00419.x     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Abrego, Leisy (2008) "Legitimacy, Social Identity, and the Mobilization of Law: The Effects of Assembly Bill 540 on Undocumented Students in California, "33 Law & Social Inquiry 709-34.
2. Albiston, Catherine R. (2005) "Bargaining in the Shadow of Social Institutions: Competing Discourses and Social Change in Workplace Mobilization of Civil Rights, "39 Law & Society Rev. 11-49.
3. Aldrige, Derrick P. (2002) "Teaching Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement in High School History Courses: Rethinking Content and Pedagogy, "in J. B. Armstrong et al., eds., Teaching the American Civil Rights Movement: Freedom's Bittersweet Song. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
4. Ancheta, Angelo (2006) Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience, 2d ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
5. Anderson, Elijah (1999) Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: Norton.
6. Archibold, Randal C. (2006) "Immigrants Take to U.S. Streets in Show of Strength, "The New York Times, National Section, 6 May, p. 1.
7. Arum, Richard (2003) Judging School Discipline: The Crisis of Moral Authority. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
8. Barnett, Sharon N., & Richard Scotch (2001) Disability Protests: Contentious Politics, 1970-1999. Washington, DC: Gallaudet Univ. Press.
9. Baumgartner, M. P. (1988) The Moral Order of a Suburb. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
10. Berk, Hillary (2007) "School Environments: A Comparison of Civil Rights Law in California, New York, and North Carolina." Unpublished manuscript, Center for the Study of Law and Society, School of Law, University of California, Berkeley.
11. Best, Arthur, & Alan Andreasen (1977) "Consumer Response to Unsatisfactory Purchases: A Survey of Perceiving Defects, Voicing Complaints, and Obtaining Redress, "11 Law & Society Rev. 701-42.
12. Black, Donald (1973) "The Mobilization of Law, "2 J. of Legal Studies 125-49.
13. Black, Donald (1976) The Behavior of Law. New York: Academic Press.
14. Black, Donald (1983) "Crime as Social Control, "48 American Sociological Rev. 34-45.
15. Bloemraad, Irene, & Christine Trost (2006) "It's a Family Affair: Intergenerational Mobilization in the Spring 2006 Protests, "52 American Behavioral Scientist 507-32.
16. Bumiller, Kristin (1987) "Victims in the Shadow of the Law: A Critique of the Model of Legal Protection, "12 Signs 421-34.
17. Bumiller, Kristin (1988) The Civil Rights Society: The Social Construction of Victims. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
18. Caplovitz, David (1963) Consumers in Trouble: A Study of Debtors in Default. New York: Free Press.
19. Carter, Prudence L. (2005) Keepin' It Real: School Success Beyond Black and White. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
20. Cintrón, Ralph (2000) "Listening to What the Streets Say: Vengeance as Ideology? 567 The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (Volume on School Violence) 42-53.
21. Coleman, James S. (1961) Adolescent Society: The Social Life of the Teenager and Its Impact on Education. New York: Free Press.
22. Cooney, Mark (1998) Warriors and Peacemakers: How Third Parties Shape Violence. New York: New York Univ. Press.
23. Cortina, Lilia M. (2001) "Assessing Sexual Harassment Among Latinas: Development of an Instrument, "7 Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 164-81.
24. Crenshaw, Kimberlé Williams (1988) "Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law, "101 Harvard Law Rev. 1331-87.
25. Curran, Barbara (1977) The Legal Needs of the Public: The Final Report of the National Survey. Chicago: American Bar Foundation.
26. Delgado, Richard, & Jean Stefancic, eds. (2000) Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, 2d ed. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
27. Deutscher, Irwin (1966) "Words and Deeds: Social Science and Social Policy, "13 Social Problems 235-54.
28. Dornbusch, Sanford (1989) "The Sociology of Adolescence, "15 Annual Rev. of Sociology 233-59.
29. Dunn, Joe P. (2005) "Teaching the Civil Rights Era: A Student-Active Approach, "38 The History Teacher 455-68.
30. Earl, Jennifer, et al. (2003) "Protest Under Fire? Explaining the Policing of Protest, "68 American Sociological Rev. 581-606.
31. Edelman, Lauren B. (1990) "Legal Environments and Organizational Environments: The Expansion of Due Process in the American Workplace, "96 American Journal of Sociology 1401-40.
32. Edelman, Lauren B., Howard S. Erlanger, et al. (1993) "Internal Dispute Resolution: The Transformation of Civil Rights in the Workplace, "27 Law & Society Rev. 497-534.
33. Edelman, Lauren B., Christopher Uggen, et al. (1999) "The Endogeneity of Legal Regulation: Grievance Procedures as Rational Myth, "105 American J. of Sociology 406-54.
34. Edelman, Lauren B., & Doug McAdam, et al. (n.d.) "Law, Social Movements and Organizations, "6 Annual Rev. of Law and Social Science, forthcoming
35. Edelman, Lauren B., & Mark C. Suchman (1997) "The Legal Environments of Organizations, "23 Annual Rev. of Sociology 479-515.
36. Edelman, Lauren B., & Mark C. Suchman (1999) "When the 'Haves' Hold Court: The Internalization of Disputing in Organizational Fields, "33 Law & Society Rev. 941-91.
37. Ellickson, Robert (1991) Order Without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
38. Emerson, Robert M. (2008) "Responding to Roommate Troubles: Reconsidering Informal Dyadic Control, "42 Law & Society Rev. 483-512.
39. Emerson, Robert M., et al. (1995) Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
40. Engel, David M., & Frank W. Munger (2003) Rights of Inclusion: Law and Identity in the Life Stories of Americans with Disabilities. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
41. Erikson, Erik H. (1968) Identity, Youth, and Crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.
42. Ewick, Patricia, & Susan S. Silbey (1998) The Common Place of Law: Stories From Everyday Life. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
43. Ewick, Patricia, & Susan S. Silbey (2003) "Narrating Social Structure: Stories of Resistance to Legal Authority, "108 American J. of Sociology 1328-72.
44. Fagan, Jeffrey, & Tom R. Tyler (2005) "Legal Socialization of Children and Adolescents, "18 Social Justice Research J. 217-42.
45. Felstiner, William L. F. (1974) "Influences of Social Organization on Dispute Processing, "9 Law & Society Rev. 63-94.
46. Felstiner, William L. F., et al. (1980-81) The Emergence and Transformation of Disputes: Naming, Blaming, Claiming ." 15 Law & Society Rev. 631-54.
47. Ferguson, Ann Arnett (2000) Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
48. Fine, Michelle, et al. (2003) "Anything Can Happen With Police Around: Urban Youth Evaluate Strategies of Surveillance in Public Places, "59 J. of Social Issues 141-58.
49. Flanagan, Constance, & Lonnie Sherrod (1998) "Youth Political Development, "54 J. of Social Issues 447-56.
50. Friedman, Lawrence (1985) Total Justice. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
51. Fuller, Sally Riggs, et al. (2000) "Legal Readings: Employee Interpretation and Mobilization of Law, "25 The Academy of Management Rev. 200-16.
52. Galanter, Marc (1974) "'Why the 'Haves' Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change, "9 Law & Society Rev. 95-160.
53. Galanter, Marc (1983) "Reading the Landscape of Disputes: What We Know and Don't Know (and Think We Know) About Our Allegedly Contentious and Litigious Society, "31 UCLA Law Rev. 4-71.
54. Garot, Robert (2007) "Inner-City Teens and Face-Work: Avoiding Violence and Maintaining Honor, "in L. Monaghan & J. E. Goodman, eds., A Cultural Interpersonal Communication: Essential Readings. Oxford: Blackwell.
55. Garot, Robert (2009) "Reconsidering Retaliation: Structural Inhibitions, Emotive Dissonance, and the Acceptance of Ambivalence Among Inner-City Young Men, "10 Ethnography 63-90.
56. Gómez, Laura E. (2004) "A Tale of Two Genres: On the Real and Ideal Links Between Law and Society and Critical Race Theory, "in A. Sarat, ed., The Blackwell Companion to Law and Society. London: Blackwell.
57. Gross, Neil (2009) "A Pragmatist Theory of Social Mechanisms, "74 American Sociological Rev. 358-79.
58. Hagan, John, Paul Hirschfield, et al. (2002) "First and Last Words: Apprehending the Social and Legal Facts of an Urban High School Shooting, "31 Sociological Methods & Research 218-54.
59. Hagan, John, Carla Shedd, et al. (2005) "Race, Ethnicity, and Youth Perceptions of Criminal Injustice, "70 American Sociological Rev. 381-407.
60. Hallinan, Maureen (2001) "Sociological Perspectives and Black-White Inequality in American Schooling, "74 Sociology of Education 50-70.
61. Haney López, Ian F. (2003) Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Harvard.
62. Heimer, Carol A. (1999) "Competing Institutions: Law, Medicine, and Family in Neonatal Care Units, "33 Law & Society Rev. 17-66.
63. Helwig, Charles C. (1995) "Adolescents' and Young Adults' Conceptions of Civil Liberties: Freedom of Speech and Religion, "66 Child Development 152-66.
64. Hess, Frederick M. (2008) Still at Risk: What Students Don't Know, Even Now. Washington, DC: Common Core.
65. Hirsh, C. Elizabeth, & Sabino Kornrich (2008) "The Context of Discrimination: Workplace Conditions, Institutional Environments, and Sex and Race Discrimination Charges, "113 American J. of Sociology 1394-432.
66. Hoffman, Elizabeth A. (2003) "Legal Consciousness and Dispute Resolution: Different Disputing Behavior at Two Similar Taxi Cab Companies, "26 Law & Social Inquiry 693-716.
67. Hoffman, Elizabeth A. (2005) "Dispute Resolution in a Worker Cooperative: Formal Procedures and Procedural Justice, "39 Law & Society Rev. 51-82.
68. Kessler, Ronald C., et al. (1999) "The Prevalence, Distribution, and Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States, "40 J. of Health and Social Behavior 208-30.
69. King, Donald W., & Kathleen A. McEvoy (1976) A National Survey of the Complaint Handling Procedures Used by Consumers. Rockville, MD: King Research.
70. Kirp, David L. (1982) Just Schools: The Idea of Racial Equality in America Education. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
71. Krisberg, Barry (2008) "The Politics of the War Against the Young, "in M. L. Frampton et al., eds., After the War on Crime: Race, Democracy and a New Reconstruction. New York: New York Univ. Press.
72. Kritzer, Herbert M. (1980-81) Studying Disputes: Learning from the CLRP Experience, "15 Law & Society Rev. 503-24.
73. Kupchik, Aaron (2009) "Things Are Tough All Over: Race, Ethnicity, and School Discipline, "11 Punishment & Society 291-317.
74. LaPiere, Richard T. (1934) "Attitudes vs. Actions, "13 Social Forces 230-7.
75. Lareau, Annette (2003) Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
76. Lee, Jennifer, & Frank D. Bean (2004) "America's Changing Color Lines: Immigration, Race/Ethnicity, and Multiracial Identification, "30 Annual Rev. of Sociology 221-42.
77. Lee, Stacey J. (2009) Unraveling the Myth of the "Model Minority" Stereotypes: Listening to Asian American Youth, 2d ed. New York: Teachers College Press.
78. Lee, Taeku (2009) "Between Theory and Social Science Practice: Toward a New Approach to the Survey Measurement of Race, "in R. Abdelal et al., eds., Measuring Identity: A Guide for Social Scientists. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
79. Lee, Valerie E., et al. (1996) "The Culture of Sexual Harassment in Secondary Schools, "33 American Educational Research J. 383-417.
80. Lofland, John, et al. (2005) Analyzing Social Settings, 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
81. Lundman, Richard J., & Robert L. Kauffman (2003) "Driving While Black: Effects of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender on Citizen Self-Reports of Traffic Stops and Police Actions, "41 Criminology 195-220.
82. Macaulay, Stewart (1963) "Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, "28 American Sociological Rev. 55-67.
83. Mansbridge, Jane (2001) "The Making of Oppositional Consciousness, "in J. Mansbridge & A. Morris, eds., Oppositional Consciousness: The Subjective Roots of Social Protest. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
84. Marshall, Anna-Maria (2003) "Injustice Frames, Legality, and the Everyday Construction of Sexual Harassment, "28 Law & Social Inquiry 761-93.
85. Marshall, Anna-Maria (2005) "Idle Rights: Employees' Rights Consciousness and the Construction of Sexual Harassment Policies, "39 Law & Society Rev. 83-124.
86. Mayhew, Leon, & Albert J. Reiss (1969) "The Social Organization of Legal Contacts, "34 American Sociological Rev. 309-18.
87. McAdam, Doug (1988) Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
88. McAdam, Doug, et al., eds. (1996) Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
89. McCann, Michael W. (1994) Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
90. McFarland, Daniel A. (2001) "Student Resistance: How the Formal and Informal Organization of Classrooms Facilitate Everyday Forms of Student Defiance, "107 American J. of Sociology 612-78.
91. McFarland, Daniel A. (2004) "Resistance as Social Drama: A Study of Change-Oriented Behaviors, "109 American J. of Sociology 1249-318.
92. McNeil, Kenneth, et al. (1979) "Market Discrimination Against the Poor and the Impact of Consumer Disclosure Laws: The Used Car Industry, "13 Law & Society Rev. 695-720.
93. Menjívar, Cecelia, & Cynthia Bejarano (2003) "Latino Immigrants' Perceptions of Crime and Police Authorities in the United States: A Case Study from the Phoenix Metropolitan Area, "26 Ethnic and Racial Studies 120-48.
94. Merry, Sally Engel (1990) Getting Justice and Getting Even: Legal Consciousness Among Working-Class Americans. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
95. Michelson, Ethan (2007) "Climbing the Dispute Pagoda: Grievances and Appeals to the Official Justice System in Rural China, "72 American Sociological Rev. 459-85.
96. Miller, Richard E., & Austin Sarat (1980-81) Grievances, Claims, and Disputes: Assessing the Adversarial Culture, "15 Law & Society Rev. 525-56.
97. Mnookin, Robert H., & Lewis Kornhauser (1979) "Bargaining in the Shadow of Law: The Case of Divorce, "88 Yale Law J. 950-97.
98. Morrill, Calvin (1995) The Executive Way: Conflict Management in Corporations. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
99. Morrill, Calvin, & Michael Musheno (n.d.) Youth Conflict: Culture and Control in a Multiethnic High School. Manuscript in progress, Center for the Study of Law and Society, School of Law, University of California, Berkeley.
100. Morrill, Calvin, Christine Yalda, et al. (2000) "Telling Tales in School: Youth Culture and Conflict Narratives, "34 Law & Society Rev. 521-65.
101. Morrill, Calvin, Mayer N. Zald, et al. (2003) "Covert Political Conflict: Challenges from Below, "29 Annual Rev. of Sociology 391-415.
102. Motomura, Hiroshi (2006) Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
103. Nader, Laura, & Harry F. Todd, Jr., eds. (1978) The Disputing Process - Law in Ten Societies. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
104. Nielsen, Laura Beth (2004) License to Harass: Law, Hierarchy, and Offensive Public Speech. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
105. Nielsen, Laura Beth, & Robert L. Nelson (2005) "Rights Realized? An Empirical Analysis of Employment Discrimination Litigation as a Claiming System, "2005 Wisconsin Law Rev. 663-711.
106. Oakes, Jeannie (1985) Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
107. Obasogie, Osagie K. (2006) "Race in Law and Society: A Critique, "in I. Haney-López, ed., Race, Law and Society. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
108. Oberweis, Trish, & Michael Musheno (1999) "Policing Identities: Cop Decision Making and the Constitution of Citizens, "24 Law & Social Inquiry 897-923.
109. O'Dougherty, Maureen (2006) "Public Relations, Private Security: Managing Youth and Race at the Mall of America, "24 Environment and Planning D: Society Space 131-54.
110. Oliver, Melvin, & Thomas Shapiro (2006) Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality, 2d ed. New York: Routledge.
111. Pager, Devah (2007) Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
112. Perry, Pamela (2002) Shades of White: White Kids and Racial Identities in High School. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
113. Polletta, Francesca (2006) It Was Like a Fever: Storytelling in Protest and Politics. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
114. Portes, Alejandro, & Rubén G. Rumbaut (2001) Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
115. Rosenbloom, Susan Rakosi, & Niobe Way (2004) "Experiences of Discrimination Among African American, Asian American, and Latino Adolescents in an Urban High School, "35 Youth and Society 420-51.
116. Rosigno, Vincent J., & James W. Ainsworth-Darnell (1999) "Race, Cultural Capital, and Educational Resources: Persistent Inequalities and Achievement Returns, "72 Sociology of Education 158-78.
117. Sampson, Robert J., & Lydia Bean (2006) "Cultural Mechanisms and Killing Fields: A Revised Theory of Community-Level Racial Inequality, "in R. D. Peterson et al., eds., The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. New York: New York Univ. Press.
118. Sánchez-Jankowski, Martín (2008) Cracks in the Pavement: Social Change and Resilience in Poor Neighborhoods. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
119. Scheingold, Stuart A. (1974) The Politics of Rights: Lawyers, Public Policy, and Political Change. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
120. Simon, Jonathan (2007) Governing Through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
121. Skelton, Tracey, & Gill Valentine, eds. (1998) Cool Places: Geographies of Youth Cultures. London: Routledge.
122. Skrentny, John (2002) The Minority Rights Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
123. Stockdill, Brett C. (2001) "Forging a Multidimensional Oppositional Consciousness: Lessons from Community-Based AIDS Activism, "in J. Mansbridge & A. Morris, eds., Oppositional Consciousness: The Subjective Roots of Social Protest. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
124. Telles, Edward E., & Vilma Ortiz (2008) Generations of Exclusion: Mexican Americans, Assimilation and Race. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
125. Tyson, Karolyn, et al. (2005) "It's Not 'A Black Thing': Understanding the Burden of Acting White and Other Dilemmas of High Achievement, "70 American Sociological Rev. 582-605.
126. View, Jenice (2004) "Introduction, "in J. View et al., eds., Putting Movement Back into Civil Rights Teaching. Washington DC: Teaching for Change.
127. Walters, Pamela Barnhouse, & Carl M. Briggs (1993) "The Family Economy, Child Labor, and Schooling: Evidence from the Early Twentieth Century South, "58 American Sociological Rev. 163-81.
128. Warland, Rex H., et al. (1975) "Dissatisfied Consumers: Who Gets Upset and Who Takes Action, "9 J. of Consumer Affairs 148-63.
129. Waters, Mary C., & Karl Eschbach (1995) "Immigration and Racial and Ethnic Inequality in the United States, "21 Annual Rev. of Sociology 419-46.
130. Weis, Lois, & Michelle Fine (2000) Construction Sites: Excavating Race, Class, and Gender Among Urban Youth. New York: Teachers College Press.
131. Welch, Kelly, & Allison Ann Payne (2010) "Racial Threat and Punitive School Discipline, "57 Social Problems 25-48.
132. White, Rob, & Johanna Wyn (2008) Youth & Society: Exploring the Social Dynamics of Youth Experience. South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford Univ. Press.
133. Williams, Juan, & Julian Bond (1988) Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965. New York: Penguin.
134. Williams, Barbara (2001) Lessons in Courage: Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, and Ruby Bridges. Ell Alma Raza Curriculum and Teachers Training Program, Denver Public Schools.
135. Williams, Patricia (2000) "Alchemical Notes: Reconstructing Ideals from Deconstructed Rights, "in R. Delgado & J. Stefancic, eds., Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge, 2d ed. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
136. Young, Iris Marion (2000) "Structure, Difference, and Hispanic/Latino Claims of Justice, "in J. J. E. Gracia & P. De Grief, eds., Hispanics/Latinos in the United States. New York: Routledge.
137. Zatz, Marjorie S., & Nancy Rodriguez (2006) "Conceptualizing Race and Ethnicity in Studies of Crime and Criminal Justice, "in R. D. Peterson et al., eds., The Many Colors of Crime; Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. New York: New York Univ. Press.
138. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
139. Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 (1975).
140. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969).
141. Rights Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964).