School Milk in Britain, 1900–1934

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 395-427

  Atkins, Peter ^a  

^a DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 77958485235     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jph.2008.0000     Document Type: Article

References (176)

1. But Virginia Berridge has called this interpretation “inadequate,” first because the Liberal reforms were a continuation of Victorian ideas and, second, because motivations for change transcended any simple notions of welfare. V. Berridge, “Health and Medicine,” in F. M. L. Thompson, ed. The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750-1950, Volume 3: Social Agencies and Institutions (Cambridge, 1990), 171-242.
2. Bentley Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain: The Origins of the Welfare State (London, 1966), 102.
3. Bernard Harris, The Origins of the British Welfare State: Social Welfare in England and Wales, 1800-1945 (Basingstoke, 2004), 158.
4. Pat Thane, Foundations of the welfare state, 2d ed. (London, 1996), 70;
5. Charles Webster, “Government Policy on School Meals and Welfare Foodsm 1939-1970,” in D. F. Smith, ed. Nutrition in Britain: Science, Scientists, and Politics in the Twentieth Century (London, 1997), 190-213.
6. Ulla Gustafsson, “School Meals Policy: The Problem with Governing Children,” Social Policy and Administration 36 (2002): 685-97.
7. Bentley Gilbert, “Health and Politics: The British Physical Deterioration Report of 1904,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 143-53.
8. “Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland),” Parliamentary Papers 1903 (Cd 1507, 1508), xxx.1;
9. “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,” Parliamentary Papers 1904 (Cd 2175, 2210, 2186), xxxii.1;
10. “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Medical Inspection and Feeding of Children Attending Public Elementary Schools,” Parliamentary Papers 1906 (Cd 2779, 2784), xlvii.1.
11. Welshman, “School Meals and Milk in England and Wales,” Medical History 41 (1997): 9, notes that there was widespread opposition to school meals.
12. see John Stewart, “Ramsay MacDonald, the Labour Party, and Child Welfare, 1900-1914, Twentieth Century British History 4, (1993) 105–25;
13. Thane, “Foundations,” 65, 70–71;
14. John Stewart, “'This injurious measure': Scotland and the 1906 Education (Provision of Meals) Act,” Scottish Historical Review 78, (1999) 76–94
15. Harry Hendrick, Child Welfare: Historical Dimensions, Contemporary Debate (Bristol, 2003), 70-73
16. Anne Colquhoun, Phil Lyon, and Emily Alexander, “Feeding Minds and Bodies: The Edwardian Context of School Meals,” Nutrition and Food Science 31 (2001): 117–24.
17. Bernard Harris, The Health of the Schoolchild: A History of the School Medical Service in England and Wales (Buckingham, 1995), chap. 7.
18. The Health of the Schoolchild: A History of the School Medical Service in England and Wales 125.
19. Ulla Gustafsson, “The Privatization of Risk in School Meals Policies,” Health, Risk and Society 6 (2004): 53–65.
20. Health, Risk and Society
21. “Protective,” in The sense of a nutritional barrier against disease, was first used in Elmer McCollum, The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition (New York, 1919).
22. Peter Atkins, “White Poison: The Health Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850-1930,” Social History of Medicine 5 (1992): 207-27.
23. Peter Atkins, “The Milk in Schools Scheme, 1934-1945
24. 'Nationalization' and Resistance,” History of Education 34 (2005): 1-21.
25. Welshman, “The School Medical Service in England and Wales” (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1988), chap. 4;
26. Welshman, “School Meals and Milk in England and Wales, 1906-45,” Medical History 41 (1997): 6-29.
27. Harris, “The Health of the Schoolchild,” chap. 7.
28. Charles Webster, “Health, Welfare, and Unemployment in the Depression,” Past and Present 109 (1985): 204-30.
29. John Hurt, “Feeding the Hungry Schoolchild in the First Half of the Twentieth Century,” in Derek Oddy and Derek Miller, eds. Diet and Health in Modern Britain (London, 1985), 178-206;
30. Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Young Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England, 1898-1918 (London, 1987), chap. 4;
31. John Burnett, “The Rise and Decline of School Meals in Britain, 1860-1990,” in John Burnett and Derek Oddy, eds. The Origins and Development of Food Policies in Europe (London, 1994), 55-69.
32. John Macnicol, The Movement for FamilyAllowances, 1918-45: A Study in Social Policy Development (London, 1980), 65-66;
33. Charles Webster, “Saving Children during the Depression: Britain's Silent Emergency, 1919-1939,” Disasters 18 (1994): 213-20;
34. Atkins, “Fattening Children, or Fattening Farmers? School Milk in Britain, 1921-1941,” Economic History Review 68 (2005): 57–78.
35. See also Lee Gilbert, “The History of School Milk: An Economic and Marketing Solution” (M.A. thesis, University of East Anglia, 1999). I am grateful to Professor Roger Cooter allowing me to look at this thesis.
36. For the period immediately after, see Atkins, “The Milk in Schools Scheme, 1934-45.” The National Government was a coalition of Labour, Liberal, and Conservative politicians initiated during the national financial crisis of 1931. It lasted until 1940.
37. John Hurt, Elementary Schooling and the Working Classes, 1860-1918 (London, 1979), chap. 5;
38. Hendrick, “Child Welfare,” 66–70.
39. Evidence of Dr. Alfred Eichholz, “Report of the Inter-departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration: Vol. 2: Lists of Witnesses and Minutes of Evidence,” Parliamentary Papers 1904 (Cd 2210), xxxii.176, Q. 476.
40. The practical importance of vitamins remained a matter of contestation throughout the 1920s. Boyd Orr at the Rowett Research Institute, for instance, emphasized minerals rather than vitamins. David Smith, “Nutrition Science and the Two World Wars,” in Smith, ed. Nutrition in Britain: Science, Scientists, and Politics in the Twentieth Century (London, 1997), 142-65.
41. Frederick Gowland Hopkins, “Feeding Experiments Illustrating the Importance of Accessory Factors in Normal Dietaries,” Journal of Physiology 44 (1912): 425–60;
42. Hopkins, “Note on the Vitamine Content of Milk,” Biochemical Journal 14 (1920): 721-24.
43. For a recent reappraisal of his work, see Harmke Kamminga and Mark Weatherall, “The Making of a Biochemist I: Frederick Gowland Hopkins' Construction of Dynamic Biochemistry,” Medical History 40 (1996): 269-92.
44. Harmke Kamminga, “'Axes to grind': Popularizing the Science of Vitamins, 1920s and 1930s,” in David Smith and Jim Phillips, eds. Food, Science, Policy, and Regulation in the Twentieth Century: International Comparative Perspectives (London, 2000), 83-100.
45. J. M. Hamill, “Diet in Relation to Normal Nutrition,” Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, Food Series, no. 1 (London, 1921), 29.
46. Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939 (London, 1980), chap. 2;
47. David Smith and Malcolm Nicolson, “The 'Glasgow School' of Paton, Findlay and Cathcart: Conservative Thought in Chemical Physiology, Nutrition, and Public Health,” Social Studies of Science 19 (1989): 195-238;
48. David Smith and Malcolm Nicolson, “Health and Ignorance: Past and Present,” in Stephen Platt, Hilary Thomas, Sue Scott, and Gareth Williams, eds. Locating Health: Sociological and Historical Explorations (Aldershot, 1993), 221-44;
49. David Smith and Malcolm Nicolson, “Nutrition, Education, Ignorance, and Income: A Twentieth-Century Debate,” in Harmke Kamminga and Andrew Cunningham, eds. The Science and Culture of Nutrition, 1840-1940 (Amsterdam, 1995), 288-318;
50. Julie Taylor, Nick Spencer, and Norma Baldwin, “Social, Economic, and Political Context of Parenting,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 82 (2000): 113–20.
51. For further comments about milk and eugenics in the 1930s, see Peter Atkins, “The Pasteurization of England: The Science, Culture and Health Implications of Milk Processing, 1900-1950,” in David Smith and Jim Phillips, eds. Food, Science, Policy and Regulation in the Twentieth Century: International and Comparative Perspectives (London, 2000), 37-51.
52. For a subtly modulated account of the social politics of eugenics in this period, see Greta Jones, “Eugenics and Social Policy between the Wars,” Historical Journal 25 (1982): 717-28.
53. The complexity of the relationship between science and eugenics is covered in G. Schaffer, “'Like a baby with a box of matches': British Scientists and the Concept of 'Race' in the Interwar Period,” British Journal for the History of Science 38 (2005): 307-24.
54. G. Leighton and P. L. McKinlay, Milk Consumption and the Growth of School Childlren: Report on an Investigation in Lanarkshire Schools (Edinburgh, 1930), 3.
55. Edith Whetham, The Agrarian History of England and Wales, vol. 8: 1914-1939 (Cambridge, 1978), 250.
56. Peter Atkins and Alessandro Stanziani, “Constructing the Natural: Regulation of Milk Standards in Britain and France, 1890-1930,” manuscript (2006).
57. Atkins, “White Poison.”
58. Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society (Harmondsworth, 1973), 46.
59. For a discussion of Illich, and also of related work by Habermas and Bourdieu
60. see Atkins, “Fattening Children,” 73.
61. Inter-Departmental Committee on Medical Inspection and Feeding of Children Attending Public Elementary Schools, volume II: “Minutes of evidence. List of witnesses, minutes of evidence, appendices and index,” Parliamentary Papers 1906 (Cd. 2784) xlvii. q. 1420.
62. Inter-Departmental Committee on Medical Inspection, qq. 47-49, 470, 494, 1821c.
63. Inter-Departmental Committee on Medical Inspection q. 1694. His comment arose from views expressed at the “Conference on Underfed School Children” held at Toynbee Hall in June 1904.
64. See the Toynbee Record 16 (1904): 141-44.
65. London County Council, “Report of Medical Officer for the Year 1929,” in Annual Report of the Council, 1929. Volume 3: Public Health (London, 1931), 110;
66. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, The Health of the School Child, 1923 (London, 1924). The use of cod-liver oil in London was challenged by the District Auditor for the 1909-10 accounts.
67. He claimed that it was not allowable under the 1906 Act. London County Council, “Education Committee Minutes of Proceedings, Children's Care (Central) Sub-Committee Report,” 20 March 1912, 599.
68. M. E. Bulkley, The Feeding of School Children (London, 1914), 191.
69. Cod-liver oil was a remedy for rickets. Kumaravel Rajakumar, “Vitamin D, Cod Liver Oil, Sunlight, and Rickets: A Historical Perspective,” Pediatrics 112 (2003): e132–e135.
70. Opposition was so strong that the 1906 Act did not apply to Scotland. See Stewart, “This Injurious Measure.”
71. London County Council, “Report for the Year 1933 of the School Medical Officer,” in Annual Report of the Council, 1933. Volume 3 (Part II): Public Health (London, 1934).
72. Jane Lewis, “The Social History of a Policy: Infant Welfare in Edwardian England,” Journal of Social Policy 9 (1980): 463-86;
73. Dwork, “War Is Good for Babies,” chap. 4;
74. Atkins, “White Poison,” 223–24.
75. Lord Rhondda, the Food Controller, made the Milk (Mothers and Children) Order in February 1918. E. M. H. Lloyd, Experiments in State Control at the War Office and the Ministry of Food (Oxford, 1924), 263.
76. E. J. Maude, “Milk Consumption: report dated 30 January, 1936, of an informal inter-departmental committee comprising representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Board of Education, Market Supply Committee, Ministry of Health, Department of Health for Scotland, Scottish Office and Treasury,” 9.
77. E. M. H. Lloyd Papers, British Library of Political and Economic Science, 4/56.
78. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, Annual Report, Parliamentary Papers 1921 (Cmd 1522) xi.
79. Anon. “School Health Work in London”: “The size of a school's milk list depends largely upon the opinion of the head teacher and care committees, and on their zeal and enthusiasm in seeking out suitable children and bringing them before the doctor as special cases.” British Medical Journal 2 (1924): 283.
80. R. Huws Jones, “Physical Indices and Clinical Assessments of the Nutrition of Schoolchildren,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 101 (1938): 1-34.
81. In the 1930s this was convenient for government, which resisted definitions that might lead to an expansion of welfare expenditure. See Charles Webster, “Healthy or Hungry Thirties?” History Workshop Journal 13 (1982): 110-29;
82. Madeleine Mayhew, “The 1930s Nutrition Controversy,” Journal of Contemporary History 23 (1988): 445-64;
83. Harris, “The Health of the Schoolchild,” 130–36.
84. LCC, Education Committee, “Minutes of Proceedings. Central Care Committee. Meeting of 2 March 1923,” 155.
85. Anon. “School Health Work in London, British Medical Journal 2 (1924): 283.
86. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, The Health of the School Child, 1923 (London, 1924), 119.
87. Peter Atkins, “White Heat in Whitehall. Inter-departmental Friction and Its Impact Upon Food Safety Policy: The Example of Milk, 1930-35,” paper under review (2006).
88. Elmer McCollum, “The Nutritional Value of Milk,” in L. A. Rogers and K. D. Lenoir, eds. Proceedings of the World's Dairy Congress, Washington DC, October 2, 3, Philadelphia PA, October 4, Syracuse NY, October 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 1923 (Washington, D.C. 1924), 1:421-37.
89. J. I. Pollock, “Two Controlled Trials of Supplementary Feeding of School Children in the 1920s,” The James Lind Library (www.jameslindlibrary.org), accessed 23 March 2006.
90. NA, FD 1/42; FD 1/3791. The rickets work was published in Harold Corry Mann, “Rickets: The Relative Importance of Environment and Diet as Factors of Causation: An Investigation in London,” Medical Research Council, Special Report Series, no. 68 (London, 1922).
91. Ministry of Health, On the State of the Public Health: Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer for 1926 (London, 1927), 186.
92. Ministry of Health, On the State of the Public Health: Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer for 1927 (London, 1928), 153.
93. E. C. Petty, “The Impact of the Newer Knowledge on Nutrition: Nutrition Science and Nutrition Policy, 1900-1939” (Ph.D. thesis, London, 1987), 181-86;
94. Petty, “Primary Research and Public Health: The Mobilization of Nutrition Research in Interwar Britain,” in Joan Austoker and Linda Bryder, eds. Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC (Oxford, 1989), 83-108.
95. J. Cook, L. M. Irwig, S. Chinn, D. G. Altman, and C. D. Florey, “The Influence of Availability of Free School Milk on the Height of Children in England and Scotland,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 33 (1979): 171-76;
96. I. A. Baker, P. C. Elwood, J. Hughes, M. Jones, F. Moore, and P. M. Sweetnam, “A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effect of the Provision of Free School Milk on the Growth of Children,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 34 (1980): 31-34;
97. R. J. Rona and S. Chinn, “School Meals, School Milk and Height of Primary School Children in England and Scotland in the Eighties,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 43 (1989): 66-71.
98. A. S. Wiley, “Does Milk Make Children Grow? Relationships between Milk Consumption and Height in NHANES 1999-2002,” American Journal of Human Biology 17 (2005): 425-41.
99. Dr. H. E. Magee perceptively wrote in his obituary of Corry Mann that he “was truly a pioneer, for he set the pattern for the conduct of investigations designed to test the practical value of foods or of single nutrients, and few of the reports published since his appeared in 1926 have failed to quote the Corry Mann experiment.” British Medical Journal 1 (1961): 1257-58.
100. Smith and Nicolson, “The 'Glasgow School.'”
101. Alan Jenkins, Drinka pinta: The Story of Milk and the Industry That Serves It (London, 1970), 80-82.
102. The Milk Industry, 3, 6 (December 1922), 58; NA, ED50/79.
103. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, The Health of the School Child, 1922 (London, 1923), 118-19.
104. G. A. Auden, A Notable Experiment in the Feeding of Children (London, 1923), 2.
105. G. A. Auden, “An Experiment in the Nutritive Value of an Extra Milk Ration,” Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute 44 (1923): 236-47.
106. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, The Health of the School Child, 1923 (London, 1924).
107. NMPC Minutes, August 1922
108. cited in Gilbert, “The History of School Milk,” 15.
109. “Memo of interview,” 9 August 1923, NA, ED 50/79.
110. NMPC minutes, 9 September and 11 November 1924, NA, MAF 52/7, TD/428.
111. NMPC minutes, 11 March 1924, NA, MAF 52/7, TD/428.
112. Jenkins, “Drinka pinta,” 97.
113. NMPC minutes, 23 October 1928, NA, MAF 52/7, TD/428A.
114. NMPC minutes, 27 November 1928, NA, MAF 52/7, TD/428A.
115. NMPC Advertising and Publicity Committee minutes, 11 February 1929, NA, MAF 52/7, TD/428A.
116. NMPC minutes, 27 November 1928, NA, MAF 52/7, TD/428A.
117. London County Council, Report of the School Medical Officer for the Year 1929 (London, 1930). It is clear that some sections of the trade saw this scheme in a cynical light because that year 12 percent of school milk samples were found to be adulterated.
118. London County Council, “Report of Medical Officer for the Year 1929,” in Annual Report of the Council, 1929. Volume 3: Public Health (London, 1931), 110.
119. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, The Health of the School Child, 1933 (London, 1934), 28;
120. Jenkins, “Drinka pinta,” 104.
121. “Milk Schemes in Schools,” NA, ED 50/79.
122. The Empire Marketing Board was set up in 1926 to promote imperial products. See Peter Atkins, “The Empire Marketing Board,” in Derek Oddy and Lydia Petránová, eds. The Diffusion of School Culture in Europe from the Late Eighteenth Century to the Present Day (Prague, 2005), 248-55.
123. Parliamentary Debates, 244 (1930), cc. 1863-64; 245 (1930), cc. 1814-15.
124. Parliamentary Debates, 273 (1932), cc. 764-65;
125. Stocks to Howarth, 1 March 1934, NA, ED 50/81.
126. Empire Marketing Board, A Year's Progress (London, 1927).
127. For more on the SNMHA, see Jacqueline Jenkinson, Scotland's Health, 1919-1948 (Oxford, 2002), 239-42.
128. The experimental records at the Rowett show that W. Godden and J. I. M. Ironside began work in 1926 “to determine the composition of whole and separated milk as used in the school children supplementary feeding experiment.” Rowett Research Institute Archives, RRI 30/1.
129. Tenth Annual Report of the Scottish Board of Health, 1928 (Edinburgh).
130. J. B. Orr, “Milk Consumption and the Growth of School Children,” Lancet 1 (1928): 140-41 and 202-3;
131. J. B. Orr, G. Leighton, Sir L. Mackenzie, and M. L. Clark, “Milk Consumption and the Growth of School Children,” in World's Dairy Congress–1928: Report of Proceedings, Great Britain, June 26th-July12th (London, 1928), 778-86;
132. J. B. Orr and G. Leighton, “Scottish Milk-feeding Investigation in Schools,” Journal of State Medicine 37 (1929): 524-47;
133. G. Leighton and M. L. Clark, “Milk Consumption and the Growth of School Children: Second Preliminary Report on Tests to the Scottish Board of Health,” Lancet 1(1929): 40-43.
134. Leighton and Clark, “Milk Consumption.”
135. Anon. “The Dietetic value of Milk and Milk Products,” Lancet 1 (1928): 193-94;
136. Anon. “The Virtues of Milk,” Lancet 1 (1929): 28-29.
137. Leighton and McKinlay, “Milk Consumption,” 2.
138. For further details, see Pollock, “Two Controlled Trials.”
139. Leighton and McKinlay, “Milk Consumption,” 3.
140. Milk Consumption 11.
141. Milk Consumption 20.
142. The interest in raw and pasteurized milk is explained in Atkins, “The Pasteurization of England.”
143. S. Bartlett, “Nutritional Value of Raw and Pasteurized Milk,” Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture 38 (1931): 60;
144. R. A. Fisher and S. Bartlett, “Pasteurized and Raw Milk,” Nature (18 April 1931): 591-92;
145. Student, “The Lanarkshire Milk Experiment,” Biometrika 23 (1931): 398-406;
146. J. Taylor, “Milk Tests in Lanarkshire Schools,” Nature (21 March 1931): 466, and (18 April 1931): 591-92;
147. Pollock, “Two Controlled Trials.”
148. Parliamentary Debates, 232 (1929-1930), c. 1222.
149. “Record of Meeting between President of Board of Education and the Agriculture Committee of the P.L.P.” 8 April 1930, NA, ED 50/79.
150. Jenkinson, “Scotland's Health,” 249-50, erroneously claims it as a “pilot project” for the 1934 Milk Act, although it is true that Elliot was behind both.
151. Parliamentary Papers 1929-1930 (127) i. 753;
152. Parliamentary Papers 1929-1930 (76) v. 611.
153. British Medical Journal 2 (1933): 272.
154. Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, The Health of the School Child, 1935 (London, 1936).
155. John Welshman, Municipal Medicine: Public Health in Twentieth-Century Britain (Oxford, 2000), 182.
156. National Archives of Scotland, GD1/41/1-4.
157. Dwork, “War Is Good for Babies,” 222, refutes Bentley Gilbert's claim that the origins of the British welfare state lie before 1914. She prefers to see World War I as the hinge point.
158. For a discussion of the similarly fundamental changes that took place during World War II, see Richard Titmuss, The Problems of Social Policy (London, 1950), 509-13.
159. Harris, “The Health of the School Child,” 121-24.
160. Expenditure on feeding may well have declined earlier if it had not been for the demand created by hardship during the dispute. For the limited nature of school feeding generally in the interwar period at a time of widespread need, see Webster, “Saving Children.”
161. Paper for Principal Assistant Secretaries' Committee, “Methods of Cooperation with the Ministry of Health on the Subject of Milk,” 14 June 1920, NA, MH 56/74 and ED 50/79;
162. Board of Education, Regulations for the Training of Teachers: Hygiene Syllabus (London, 1919), section 6: “Welfare of Infants and Young Children,” NA, MH 56/74.
163. Petty, “The Impact,” 169-72.
164. For a full discussion of the economic motivations for the expansion of school milk, see Atkins, “Fattening Children.”
165. Atkins, “The Milk in Schools Scheme, 1934-45.”
166. Titmuss, “The Problems of Social Policy,” 510.
167. For more on the image of milk, see Francis McKee, “The Popularization of Milk as a Beverage during the 1930s,” in D. F. Smith, ed. Nutrition in Britain: Science, Scientists and Politics in the Twentieth Century (London, 1997), 123-41.
168. Frank Le Gros Clark, Social History of the School Meals Service (London, 1948).
169. James Vernon, “The Ethics of Hunger and the Assembly of Society: The Techno-Politics of the School Meal in Britain,” American Historical Review 110, no. 3 (2005): 32 paras, http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/110.3/vernon.html (accessed 24 March 2006).
170. Catherine Burke, “Contested Desires: The Edible Landscape of School,” Paedagogica Historica 41 (2005): 571-87.
171. For a similar conclusion, see Webster, “Government Policy”
172. Atkins, “Fattening Children.”
173. The basis for making these estimates is presented in Atkins, “Fattening Children,” 57–78.
174. Fattening Children 64-65.
175. John Pickstone, “Production, Community and Consumption: The Political Economy of Twentieth-Century Medicine,” in Roger Cooter and John Pickstone, eds. Companion to Medicine in the Twentieth Century (London, 2003).
176. For more on this, see Atkins, “Fattening Children.”