Development of design and safety specifications for LNG facilities based on experimental and theoretical research

OPEC, Oil Prices and LNG

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 295-424

  Cormier, Benjamin R ^a   Suardin, Jaffee A ^a   Rana, Morshed ^a   Zhang, Yingchun ^a   Mannan, M Sam ^a  

^a Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77956427620     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (129)

1. Energy Information Administration. Annual Energy Outlook 2004 with projections to 2025. 2004 [cited; Available from: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/archive/aeo04/index.html.
2. Laboratories, S.N., Guidance on Risk Analysis and Safety Implication of a LargeLiquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Spill Over Water. December 2004.
3. Taylor, D.W., LNG Risk Management-Regulations, Codes, Standards and Company Practices, in The 8th Annual Symposium of Mary Kay O'Connor Process Safety Center. 2005: College Station, Texas.
4. Kuhwoi, K., K. Park, M.S.Mannan, and E.S.Yoon, Safety Analysis for LNG Terminal Focused on the Consequence Calculation of Accidental and Intentional Spills. 2005.
5. Zuber, K., LNG facilities-Engineered fire protection systems. Fire Technology, 1976. 12(1): p. 41-48.
6. West, H.H. and M.S. Mannan, LNG Safety Practice & Regulations: From the 1944 East Ohio Tragedy to today's safety record. 2001, Mary Kay O'Connor Process Safety Center:Houston, Texas.
7. Zinn, C.D., LNG Codes and Process Safety. 2005.
8. Qiao, Y., H.H. West, and M.S. Mannan, Assessment of the Effects of Release Variables on the Consequences of LNG Spillage onto Water using FERC models. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2005.
9. US Bureau of Mines, Report on the Investigation of the Fire at the Liquefaction, Storage, and Regasification Plant of the East Ohio Gas Co. 1946: Cleveland, Ohio.
10. Institute for Energy Law and Enterprise, LNG safety and security. 2003, University of Houston Law Center.
11. Standards for production, storage and handling of liquefied natural gas (LNG). 2001.
12. Crowl, D.A. and J.F. Louvar, Chemical process safety-fundamentals with application. 2 ed. 2002, New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR.
13. Dowell, A.M. and D.C. Hendershot, Simplified risk analysis-layer of protection analysis (LOPA) in AIChE National Meeting. 2002.
14. Lom, W.L., Liquefied Natural Gas. 1974, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
15. Prugh, R.W., Guidelines for vapor release mitigation. 1987, New York: CCPS.
16. Vervalin, C.H., Fire Protection Manual for Hydrocarbon Processing Plan. Vol. 2. 1981, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company.
17. Havens, J. and T. Spicer, LNG vapor cloud exclusion zones for spills into impoundments. Process Safety Progress, 2005. 24(3): p.181-186.
18. Martinsen, W.E. and S.P. Muhenkamp, Disperse vapors with water. Hydrocarbon Processing, 1977: p. 260-267.
19. Brown, L.E., W.E. Martinsen, and J.B. Cornwell, Spill protection for liquefied gas facilities, in Spring Meeting of the American Petroleum Institute Committee on Safety and Fire Protection. 1983: Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
20. Nohan, D.P., Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles for Oil, Gas, Chemical, and Related Facilities. 1996, Westwood, New Jersey: Noyes Publications.
21. Lev, Y., A Novel Method for Controlling LNG Pool Fire. Fire Technology: p. 275-284.
22. DNV, LNG Marine Release Consequence Assessment. July 16, 2004, Det Norske Veritas (U.S.A) Inc.
23. DNV, LNG marine release consequence assessment. 2004, Det Norske Veritas (U.S.A) Inc.
24. Government Accountability Office, Marine security, Plubic safety consequences of a terrorist attach on a tanker carrying liquefied natural gas need clarification. 2007.
25. Phani, K.R., Large LNG fire thermal radiation-modeling issues and hazard criteria revisited. 2005. p. 192-202.
26. Briscoe, F. and P. Shaw, Spread and evaporation of liquid. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 1980. 6(2): p.127-140.
27. Melhem, G.A., LNG release assessment. 1991, Arthur D. little: Cambridge, Massachusetts.
28. Hightower, M., L. Gritzo, A. Luketa-Hanlin, J. Covan, S. Tieszen, G. Wellman, M. Irwan, M. Kaneshige, B. Melof, C. Morrow, and D. Ragland, Guidance on Risk Analysis and Safety Implications of a Large Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Spill over Water. 2004, Sandia National Laboratory.
29. Feldbauer, G.F., J.J. Heigl, W. McQueen, R.H. Whipp, and W.G. May, Spills of LNG onto water: vaporization and downwind drift of conbustible mixture. 1972, Esso Research and Engineering Co.
30. Kneebone, A. and L.R. Prew, Shipboard jettison tests of LNG onto sea water, in 4th Intl. Conf. on LNG. 1974: Algiers.
31. Opschoor, G., The spreading and evaporation of LNG-and Burning-spills on water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1980. 3(1980): p. 249-266.
32. Pitblado, R.M., J. Baik, G.J. Hughes, C. Ferro, and S.J. Shaw, Consequences of Liquefied Natural Gas Marine Incidents. American Institute of Chemical Engineering Process Safety Progress, 2005(24): p. 108-114.
33. Luketa-Hanlin, A., A review of large-scale LNG spills: Experiments and modeling. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2006. 132(2-3): p. 119-140.
34. Hissong, D.W., Keys to modeling LNG spills on water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2007. 140(3): p. 465-477.
35. Fay, J.A., Model of spills and fires from LNG and oil tankers. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2003. 96(2-3): p. 171-188.
36. Conrado, C. and V. Vesovic, The influence of chemical composition on vaporisation of LNG and LPG on unconfined water surfaces. Chemical Engineering Science, 2000. 55(20): p.4549-4562.
37. Vesovic, V., The influence of ice formation on vaporization of LNG on water surfaces. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2006. 140(3): p. 518-526.
38. Waite, P.J., R.J. Whitehouse, E.B. Winn, and W.A. Wakeham, The spread and vaporisation of cryogenic liquids on water. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1983. 8(2):p. 165-184.
39. Burgess, D., J. Murphy, and M.G. Zabetakis, Hazards Associated with the spillage of Liquefied Natural Gas on Water. 1970, Bureau of Mines.
40. Burgess, D., J. Biordi, and J. Murphy, Hazards of spillage of LNG into water. 1972, Bureau of Mines: Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. p. 93.
41. Baik, J., V. Raghunathan, and H. Witlox, Consequence Modeling of LNG Marine Incidents. American Society of Safety Engineers, 2006.
42. Sklavounos, S. and F. Rigas, Validation of turbulence models in heavy gas dispersion over obstacles. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2004. 108(1-2): p. 9-20.
43. Olvera, H.A. and A.R. Choudhuri, Numerical simulation of hydrogen dispersion in the vicinity of a cubical building in stable stratified atmospheres. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2006. 31(2006): p.2356-2369.
44. Alinot, C. and C. Masson, k-e model for the atmospheric boundary layer under various thermal stratifications. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 2005. 127(2005): p.438-443.
45. Panofsky, H.A. and J.A. Dutton, Atmospheric turbulence. 1984, New York John Wiley & Sons.
46. Pasquill, F., Atmospheric Diffusion. 2nd ed. 1974, New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons.
47. DeVaull, G.D., J.A. King, R.J. Lantzy, and D.J. Fontaine, Understanding Atmospheric Dispersion of Accident Releases, ed. Center for Chemical Process Safety. 1995, New York.
48. Ermak, D.L., S.T. Chan, D.L. Morgan, and L.K. Morris, A comparison of dense gas dispersion model simulations with burro series LNG spill test results. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1982. 6(1-2): p. 129-160.
49. Spicer, T.O. and J.A. Havens, Field test validation of the degadis model. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 1987 16(2) p. 15
50. Witlox, H.W.M., The HEGADAS model for ground-level heavy-gas dispersion II. Timedependent model. Atmospheric Environment, 1994. 28(18): p. 2933-2946.
51. Spicer, T.O. and J.A. Havens, User's guide for the DEGADIS 2.1 dense gas dispersion model 1989, Environmental Protection Agency.
52. Ermak, D.L., User's manual for SLAB: an atmospheric dispersion model for denser-thanair releases. 1990, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Livermore, CA.
53. Zeman, O. and J.L. Lumley, Modeling buoyancy driven mixed layers. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 1976. 33(10): p.1974-88.
54. Zeman, O., Parameterization of the dynamics of stable boundary layers and nocturnal jets. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 1979. 36(5): p. 792-804.
55. Brown, T.C., R.T. Cederwall, S.T. Chan, D.L. Ermak, R.P. Koopman, K.C. Lamson, J.W. McClure, and L.K. Morris, Falcon Series Data Report 1987 LNG Vapor Barrier Verification Field Trials. 1990, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Livermore, CA.
56. Witlox, H.W.M., The HEGADAS model for ground-level heavy-gas dispersion I. Steadystate model. Atmospheric Environment, 1994. 28(18): p. 2917-2932.
57. Havens, J.A., A Dispersion Model For Elevated Dense Jet Chemical Releases Volume 1. 1988, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: North Carolina.
58. Hanna, S.R., J.C. Chang, and D.G. Strimaitis, Hazardous gas model evaluation with field observations. Atmospheric Environment, Part A: General Topics, 1993. 27A(15): p. 2265-2285.
59. Alp, E., S. Alp, S.G. Guerin, J. Reid, C.H. Matthias, D. Napier, and R.V. Portelli, LNG spill and dispersion modeling, in Technical seminar for chemical spills. 1985: Toronto, Ontario Canada.
60. Kakko, R., Computer aided consequence analysis and some future needs. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1991. 26(1991): p. 105-125.
61. Chan, S.T., A Three-Dimensional Model for Simulation Atmospheric Dispersion of Heavy-Gases Over Complex Terrain. 1997, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory:Livermore, CA.
62. Sklavounos, S. and F. Rigas, Simulation of Coyote series trials--Part I:: CFD estimation of non-isothermal LNG releases and comparison with box-model predictions. Chemical Engineering Science, 2006. 61(5): p.1434-1443.
63. Gavelli, F., E. Bullister, and H. Kytomaa, Validation of Fluent Predictions for LNG Spills into an Impoundment, in Mary Kay O'Connor Process Safety Center 2006 International Symposium. 2006: College Station, TX.
64. Dharmavaram, S., S.R. Hanna, and O.R. Hansen, Consequence Analysis-Using a CFD Model for Industrial Sites. Process Safety Progress, 2005. 24(4): p.316-327.
65. Cox, R.A., Methods for predicting the atmospheric dispersion of massive releases of flammable vapour. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 1980. 6(2): p. 141-149.
66. Chan, S.T., Numerical simulations of LNG vapor dispersion from a fenced storage area. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1992. 30(2): p. 195-224.
67. Havens, J.A., T.O. Spicer, W.V. Sheppard, and K. Perry. LNG terminal siting: FEM3A vapor dispersion model development. 2004. New Orleans, LA, United States: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, United States.
68. Havens, J., H. Walker, and T. Spicer, Wind-tunnel data sets for complex dispersion model evaluation. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 1994. 7(2): p.124-129.
69. Chan, S.T., FEM3C, an improved three-dimensional heavy-gas dispersion model user's manual. 1984, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Livermore, CA.
70. McCallen, R.C., Investigation of the finite element incompressible flow code FEM3: the model, some of its options, a guide in how to obtain and run the code, and its performance on some chosen problems. 1988, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory:Livermore, CA.
71. Chan, S.T., FEM3, a finite element model for the simulation of heavy gas dispersion and incompressible flow, user's manual. 1983, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory:Livermore, CA.
72. Chan, S.T., Recent upgrades and enhancements of the FEM3A model. 1994, Larwence Livermore National Laboratory: Livermore, CA.
73. Ohba, R., A. Kouchi, T. Hara, V. Vieillard, and D. Nedelka, Validation of heavy and light gas dispersion models for the safety analysis of LNG tank. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2004. 17(5): p.325-337.
74. Cormier, B., Y. Wang, and M.S. Mannan, LNG Mitigation Experiments-Preliminary Results, in Mary Kay O'Connor Process Safety Center 2006 International Symposium. 2006: College Station, TX.
75. Luketa-Hanlin, A., R.P. Koopman, and D.L. Ermak, On the application of computational fluid dynamics codes for liquefied natural gas dispersion. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2007. 140(2007): p.504-517.
76. Chan, S.T., D.L. Ermak, and L.K. Morris, FEM3 model simulations of selected Thorney island phase I trials. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1987. 16: p.267-292.
77. Chan, S.T., FEM3A, simulation of selected LNG vapor barrier verification field tests. 1990, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Livermore, CA.
78. Sklavounos, S. and F. Rigas, Fuel Gas Dispersion under Cryogenic Release Conditions. Energy & Fuels, 2005. 2005(19): p.2535-2544.
79. Gavelli, F., E. Bullister, and H. Kytomaa (2008) Application of CFD (Fluent) to LNG spills into geometrically complex environments. Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.02.037
80. Hanna, S.R., O.R. Hansen, and S. Dharmavaram, FLACS CFD air quality model performance evaluation with Kit Fox, MUST, Prairie Grass, and EMU observations. Atmospheric Environment, 2004. 38(2004): p.4675-4687.
81. Koopman, R.P., J. Baker, R.T. Cederwall, H.C. Goldwire, W.J. Hogan, L.M. Kamppinen, R.D. Kiefer, J.W. McClure, T.G. McRae, D.L. Morgan, L.K. Morris, J.M.W. Spann, and C.D. Lind, Burro Series Data Report LLNL/NWC 1980 LNG Spill Tests, Volume 1. 1982, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory: Livermore CA.
82. May, W.G., W. McQueen, and R.H. Whipp, Dispersion of LNG spills. Hydrocarbon Processing, 1973. 52(5): p.105-109.
83. Humbert-Basset, R. and A. Montet. Dispersion dans l'atmosphere d'un nuage gazeux forme par epandage de GNL sur le sol. in Third International Conference & Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas. 1972. Washington, D.C.
84. American Gas Association, LNG safety program: Phase II. 1974, American Gas Association.
85. Meroney, R.N. and D.E. Neff, Dispersion of vapor from liquid natural gas spillsevaluation of simulation in a meteorological wind tunnel: five-cubic-meter China Lake spill series. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1982. 10(1): p.1-19.
86. Puttock, J.S., D.R. Blackmore, and G.W. Colenbrander, Field experiments on dense gas dispersion. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 1982. 6(1-2): p. 13-41.
87. Goldwire, H.C., H.C. Rodean, R.T. Cederwall, E.J. Kansa, R.P. Koopman, J.W. McClure, T.G. McRae, L.K. Morris, L.M. Kamppinen, R.D. Kiefer, P.A. Urtiew, and C.D. Lind, Coyote Series Data Report LLNL/NWC 1981 LNG Spill Tests Dispersion, Vapor Burn, And Rapid-Phase-Transition. 1893, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory:Livermore, CA.
88. Shin, S.H., R.N. Meroney, and D.E. Neff, LNG Vapor Barrier and Obstacle Evaluation:Wind-Tunnel Simulation of 1987 Falcon Spill Series. 1991, Gas Research Institute: Fort Collins, CO.
89. Hanna, S.R., D.G. Strimaitis, and J.C. Chang, Hazard Response Modeling Uncertainty; A Quantitative Method. Volume II: Evaluation of Commonly-Used Hazardous Gas Dispersion Models. 1991, Sigma Research Corporation: Westford, MA.
90. HPA website.
91. Dusserre, G., Dandrieux, A., Thomas, O., The DVS Model: A New Concept for Heavy Gas Dispersion by Water Curtain. Environmental Modeling and Software, 2003. 18: p. 253-259.
92. Moore, P.A.C., Rees, W.D., Forced Dispersion of Gases by Water and Steam, in The Containment and Dispersion of Gases by Water Sprays, D.V. Greenwood, Editor. 1981, IChemE, North Western Branch: UK. p. 4.1-4.14.
93. Buchlin, J.M., Mitigation of problem clouds. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 1994. 7: p.167-174.
94. Buchlin, J.M. and E. Alessandri, Numerical simulation of the thermohydraulic behaviour of liquid sprays, in 13th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems 1997: Florence. p. 8.
95. Fthenakis, V.M., Modeling of Water Spraying of Toxic Gas Releases. Ph.D. Thesis, 1991, New York University: NY.
96. Guidelines for Post release Mitigation Technology in the Chemical Process Industry. 1997, CCPS, AIChE p. 58-62.
97. Briffa, F.E.J. and N. Dombrowski, Entrainment of air into a liquid spray. AIChE Journal, 1966. 12(4): p.708-717.
98. Bennet, F.G.S. and P. Eisenklam, Gaseous entrainment into axisymmetric liquid sprays. Journal of the Institute of Fuel, 1969. 42: p.309-315.
99. McQuaid, J., The design of water spray barriers for chemical plants, in 2nd International Loss Prevention Symposium. 1977: Heidelberg.
100. McQuaid, J. and R.D. Fitzpatrick, Air entrainment by water sprays: strategies for application to the dispersion of gas plumes. Journal of Occupational Accidents, 1983. 5:p. 121-133.
101. Heskestad, G., H.C. Kung, and N. Todtenkopf, Air entrainment into water sprays and spray curtains. ASME, 1976(76-WA/FE-40).
102. Fthenakis, V.M. and V. Zakkay, A theoretical study of absorption of toxic gases by spraying. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 1990. 3(April): p. 197-206.
103. Hald, K., G. Dusserre, A. Dandrieux, and J.M. Buchlin, A methodology to investigate heavy gas dispersion by water-curtains, in Proceedings of European Safety and Reliability (ESREL) Conference. 2003: Maastricht, Netherlands. p. 741-746.
104. Hald, K., G. Dusserre, A. Dandrieux, and J.M. Buchlin, Heavy gas dispersion by water-curtains: a research methodology. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2005. 18: p.506-511.
105. Bosanquet, C.H., The rise of a hot waste gas plume. Journal of the Institute of Fuel, 1957. 30: p.322-328.
106. St-Georges, M. and J.M. Buchlin, Heat transfer in liquid curtains mitigating pollutant releases. Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries, 1995. 2: p.495-506.
107. Alessandri, E., J.M. Buchlin, A. Cavallini, M.K. Patel, and E. Galea, On the modelling of the thermal interactions between a spray curtain and an impinging cold gas cloud, in Centre for Numerical Modelling and Process Analysis. 1996, School of Computing and Mathematical Sciences, University of Greenwich: London, UK.
108. Liquefied natural gas facilities: federal safety standards.
109. Prugh, R.W. and R.W. Johnson, Guidelines for vapor release mitigation. CCPS. 1988: AIChE.
110. Prugh, R.W., Mitigation of vapor cloud hazards. Plant Operation Progress, 1986. 5(3): p. 169-174.
111. Heskestad, G., R.N. Meroney, and K.M. Kothari, Effectiveness of water spray curtains in dispersing LNG vapor clouds, in Proceedings of the American Gas Association, Transmission Conference Paper. 1983: Seattle, Washington. p. T169-T183.
112. Atallah, S., E. Guzman, and J.N. Shah, Water spray barriers for LNG vapor mitigation. 1988, Risk and Industrial safety Consultants, Inc. for Gas Research Institute.
113. Arthur D. Little Inc., Evaluation of LNG vapor control methods. 1974, American Gas Association.
114. Harris, N.C., The Design of Effective Water Sprays-What We Need To Know. 1981, IChemE, North Western Branch Papers. p. 7.1-7.5.
115. University engineers Inc., LNG fire control, fire extinguishment and vapor dispersion tests. 1972, American Gas Association.
116. Fred, S. and B. Adams, Principles of foam fire fighting. 2003, Stillwater, Oklahoma. 74078: Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University.
117. Woodworth, S.P. and J.A. Frank, Fighting fires with foam. 1994, New York, New York 10003: Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
118. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 11 Standard for low-, medium-, and high-expansion foam. 2002.
119. Parfomak, P.W. and A.S. Vann, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Import terminals:siting, safety, and regulations. Congressional Research Service (CRS) report for congress. 2007.
120. Lev, Y., Novel method for controlling LNG pool fires. Fire Technology, 1981. 17(4):p. 275-284.
121. Westwood, K. and M. Wilson, Fast and effective emergency response to LNG vapour releases and fires in The 15th international conference & exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas. 2007. PS7-1
122. Brown, L.E., H.R. Wesson, and J.R. Welker. thermal radiation from LNG fires and LNG fire suppression. in The 3rd Conference on Natural Gas Research and Technology. 1974.
123. Nolan, D.P., Handbook of fire and explosion protection engineering principles for oil, gas, chemical, and related facilities. 1996, New Jersey: Noyes publications.
124. Wesson, H.R., J.R.Welker, and L.E. Brown, Control LNG spill fires. Hydrocarbon Processing, 1972. 51(12): p. 61.
125. Perrson, B., A. Lonnermark, and H. Persson, FOAMSPEX: Large scale foam application-modeling of foam spread and extinguishment. Fire Technology, 2003. 39: p.347-362.
126. Takeno, K., T. Ichinose, K. Tokuda, R. Ohba, K. Yoshida, and K. Ogura, Effects of high expansion foam dispersed onto leaked LNG on atmospheric diffusion of vaporized gas. Journal of Loss Prevention in Process Industries, 1996. 9(2): p.125-133.
127. University Engineers Inc., LNG vapor dispersion and fire tests. 1971, University Engineers Inc: Norman, Oklahoma.
128. Texas A&M extension services, Brayton Fire Training Field. 2008 [cited; Available from: www.teexweb.tamu.edu.
129. Honeywell, Searchpoint optima plus infrared point gas detector: Operation Instructions. Vol. MAN0551.P65. 2004.