Flexigemony and force in China's resource diplomacy in Africa: Sudan and Zambia compared

Geopolitics

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 496-515

  Carmody, Pádraig ^a   Taylor, Ian ^b  

^a TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN   (Ireland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GEOPOLITICS; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; VIOLENCE;

CHINA; SUDAN; ZAMBIA;

EID: 77956070596     PISSN: 14650045     EISSN: 15573028     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14650040903501047     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. G. Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty First Century (New York and London: Verso 2007).
2. J. Eisenman, E. Heginbotham, and D. Mitchell, 'Introduction', in J. Eisenman, E. Heginbotham, and D. Mitchell (eds.), China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
3. See Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty First Century (New York and London: Verso 2007).;
4. J. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007).
5. M. Blank, Hugging with Tactical Arms: What Motivates China to Export Weapons? BA thesis (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan 2009).
6. J. Eisenman, 'China's Post-Cold War Strategy in Africa: Examining Beijing's Methods and Objectives', in Eisenman et al.China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
7. R. Abrahamson, Disciplining Democracy (London: Zed 2000).
8. Peace is of course a relative rather than an absolute term. The colonial labour regime generated violent resistance in Zambia and there have been many urban riots over food price increases, for example.
9. M. Watts, 'Petro-Insurgency or Criminal Syndicate? Conflict & Violence in the Niger Delta', Review of African Political Economy 114 (2007) p. 637.
10. D. Craig and P. Porter, Development Beyond Neoliberalism: Governance, Poverty Reduction and Political Economy (London: Routledge 2006).
11. See D. Harvey, The New Imperialism (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 2003).
12. J. Peck and A. Tickell, 'Neoliberalizing Space', Antipode 34/3 (2002) p. 392.
13. A. Amsden, 'Why Isn't the Whole World Experimenting with the East Asian Model to Develop? Review of The East Asian Miracle', World Development 22/4 (1994) pp. 627-633.
14. th Century Africa', in R. Joseph (ed.), State, Conflict and Democracy in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 1999) p. 61
15. R. Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1993).
16. N. Van de Walle, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 2001).
17. E. Mawdsley, 'Fu Manchu versus Dr Livingstone in the Dark Continent? How British broadsheet newspapers represent China, Africa and the West', Political Geography 27 (2008) pp. 509-529.
18. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007).
19. I. Taylor, China's New Role in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2009).
20. T. Blair, 'Faith and Globalisation Lecture', available at .
21. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007) p. xi.
22. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007) p. 6.
23. J. S. Nye, 'Security and Smart Power', American Behavioural Scientist 51/9 (2008) pp. 1351-1356.
24. Stockholm Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook 2008: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security (2008), available at .
25. Quoted in Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007) p. 38.
26. J. Carrier, and D. Miller, Virtualism: A New Political Economy (Oxford and New York: Berg 1998).
27. G. Mohan, and M. Power, 'New African Choices? The Politics of Chinese Engagement', Review of African Political Economy 115 (2008) p. 25.
28. C. Clapham, 'Fitting China In', in C. Alden, D. Large, and R. S. De Oliveira (eds.), China Returns to Africa: A Rising Power and a Continent Embrace (London: Hurst 2007).
29. J. F. Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly (Longman: London 1993).
30. I. Taylor, 'Governance in Africa and Sino-African Relations: Contradictions or Confluence?', Politics 27/3 (2007) pp. 139-146.
31. J. Wolfensohn, 'The Other Crisis. Address to the Board of Governors of the World Bank. Washington, D.C.' (1998) p. 11
32. D. Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North- South Relations (Malden and Oxford: Blackwell 2004) p. 106.
33. P. Carmody and F. Owusu, 'Competing Hegemons? Chinese vs. American Geoeconomic Strategies in Africa', Political Geography 26/5 (2007) pp. 504-524.
34. See M. Rupert, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1995);
35. J. Agnew, Hegemony: The New Shape of Global Power (Philadelphia: Temple University Press 2005).
36. C. Alden, 'Africa Without Europeans', in C. Alden et al., China Returns to Africa: A Rising Power and a Continent Embrace (London: Hurst 2007)
37. Washington Post, 23 Dec. 2004.
38. New Vision (Kampala), 16 June 2007.
39. Reuters (Khartoum), 17 Dec. 2005.
40. Sudan Tribune (Paris), 15 Jan. 2007.
41. Sunday Boston Globe (Boston), 17 Dec. 2006.
42. Interview with He Wenping, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China, 18 Sep. 2007.
43. Beijing Review (Beijing), 7 June 2007.
44. US State Department, 'Top U.S. Diplomat Cites Chinese Cooperation on Darfur', press release, Washington, DC, 11 April 2007.
45. Financial Times (London), 18 May 2007.
46. Interview with political scientist, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China, 19 Oct. 2009.
47. Interview with Chinese diplomat, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 15 May 2007.
48. S. Massey and R. May, 'Oil and War in Chad', in R. Southall and H. Melber (eds.), A New Scramble for Africa (Durban: University of Kwa-Zula Natal Press 2009).
49. Journal du Dimanche, 23 April 2006, cited in Massey and May, 'Oil and War in Chad', in R. Southall and H. Melber (eds.), A New Scramble for Africa (Durban: University of Kwa-Zula Natal Press 2009).
50. Interview with Acting Head, Political Affairs Section, Chinese Embassy, Windhoek, Namibia, 13 Aug. 2006.
51. I. Taylor, 'China's Foreign Policy Towards Africa in the 1990s', The Journal of Modern African Studies 36/3 (Sep. 1998) pp. 443-460.
52. Xinhua, 12 Dec. 2005.
53. Interview with researcher, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China, 15 Nov. 2009.
54. Q. Zhao, Interpreting Chinese Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press 1996);
55. C.-c. Teng, 'Hegemony or Partnership: China's Strategy and Diplomacy Toward Latin America', in J. Eisenman et al., China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
56. Interview with Shu Zhan, Chinese ambassador, Asmara, Eritrea, 29 June 2006.
57. A. Carlson, 'More than Just Saying No: China's Evolving Approach to Sovereignty and Intervention', in A. Johnston and R. Ross (eds.), New Directions in the Study of China's Foreign Policy (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 2006) p. 218.
58. Interview with He Wenping, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China, 18 Sep. 2007.
59. Carlson, 'More than Just Saying No: China's Evolving Approach to Sovereignty and Intervention', in A. Johnston and R. Ross (eds.), New Directions in the Study of China's Foreign Policy (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 2006) p. 218.
60. I. Taylor, 'Beyond the New "Two Whateverisms": China's Ties in Africa', China Aktuell: Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 3 (2008).
61. This report, undertaken in 2000, undertook a comprehensive review of UN peacekeeping operations with a view to how they could be improved.
62. A. Bellamy and P. Williams, 'What Future for Peace Operations? Brahimi and Beyond', International Peacekeeping, 11/1 (2004).
63. Zhang Li, 'Some Reflections on International Intervention', in International Intervention and State Sovereignty (Beijing: China Reform Forum 2003).
64. M. Fitzgerald, 'Zambia Becomes Shorthand for What Can Go Wrong', The Irish Times (Dublin), 8 Aug. 2008, available at .
65. Interview with World Bank official, Lusaka, Zambia, 10 Jan. 2007.
66. M. Larmer and A. Fraser, 'Of Cabbages and King Cobra: Populist Politics and Zambia's 2006 Election', African Affairs 106/425 (2007) pp. 611-637.
67. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Asian Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Towards a New Era of Cooperation among Developing Countries (Geneva: UNCTAD 2007).
68. A. Bastholm and P. Kragelund, 'State-Driven Chinese Investment in Zambia: Combining Strategic Interests and Profits', mimeo (2007).
69. Interview with Zambian diplomat, Embassy of Zambia, Beijing, China, 20 Oct. 2009.
70. S. Raine, China's African Challenges (Oxford: Routledge and ISS 2009).
71. RoZ, Economic Report 2005 (Lusaka: Ministry of Finance and National Planning 2006).
72. I. Mwanawina, China-Africa Economic Relations: The Case of Zambia, a study commissioned by the African Economic Research Consortium, Feb. 2008.
73. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007).
74. Mwanawina, China-Africa Economic Relations: The Case of Zambia, a study commissioned by the African Economic Research Consortium, Feb. 2008.
75. Fitzgerald, 'Zambia Becomes Shorthand for What Can Go Wrong', The Irish Times (Dublin), 8 Aug. 2008, available at .
76. Fieldnotes, Zambia, Aug. 2009.
77. Quoted in Fitzgerald, 'Zambia Becomes Shorthand for What Can Go Wrong', The Irish Times (Dublin), 8 Aug. 2008, available at .
78. Patel quoted in C. McGreal, 'Thanks China, Now Go Home: Buy-Up of Zambia Revives Old Colonial Fears', The Guardian, 2007, in S. Rupp, 'Africa and China: Engaging Postcolonial Interdependencies', in R. Rotberg (ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid and Influence (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press 2008) p. 72.
79. Taylor, China's New Role (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2009).
80. W. Jiang, 'China's Emerging Strategic Partnerships in Africa', in Rotberg (ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid and Influence (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press 2008) p. 72.
81. Confidential interview, Zambia-China Cooperation Zone, Chambishi, Zambia, Aug. 2009.
82. Interview with diplomat, Lusaka, Zambia, Aug. 2009.
83. M. Ndulo, 'Chinese Investments in Africa: A Case Study of Zambia', in K. Ampiah and S. Naidu (eds.), Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon? Africa and China (Durban: University of Kwa-Zulu Natal Press 2008) p. 146.
84. P. Carmody, 'An Asian-Driven Economic Recovery in Africa? The Zambian Case', World Development 37/7 (2009) pp. 1197-1207.
85. R. Negi, 'Beyond the "Chinese Scramble": The Political Economy of Anti-China Sentiment in Zambia', African Geographical Review 27 (2008) pp. 41-63.
86. P. Le Billon, 'The Geopolitical Economy of 'Resource Wars' Geopolitics 9/1 (2004) pp. 1-28.
87. McGreal, 'Thanks China, Now Go Home: Buy-Up of Zambia Revives Old Colonial Fears', The Guardian, 2007, in S. Rupp, 'Africa and China: Engaging Postcolonial Interdependencies', in R. Rotberg (ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid and Influence (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press 2008) p. 72.
88. University of Zambia economist interview Lusaka, Zambia, 1 Sep. 2007.
89. I. Taylor, China and Africa: Engagement and Compromise (London and New York: Routledge 2006).
90. M. A. Glosny, 'Stabilizing the Backyard: Recent Developments in China's Policy Toward Southeast Asia', Eisenman et al., China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008).
91. C. Alden, China in Africa: Partner Competitor or Hegemon (London: Zed 2007).
92. Interview with Zambian diplomat, Embassy of Zambia, Beijing, China, 20 Oct. 2009.
93. Negi, 'Beyond the "Chinese Scramble": The Political Economy of Anti-China Sentiment in Zambia', African Geographical Review 27 (2008) pp. 41-63.
94. Taylor, China's New Role (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2009).
95. Interview with International Labour Organization official, Lusaka, Zambia, 13 Aug. 2009.
96. J. Tang, With the Grain or Against the Grain? Energy Security and Chinese Foreign Policy in the Hu Jintao Era, CNAPS Working Paper Series (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press Oct. 2006) p. 31.
97. N. Shaxson, Poisoned Wells: The Dirty Politics of African Oil (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave MacMillan 2007).
98. Teng, 'Hegemony or Partnership: China's Strategy and Diplomacy Toward Latin America', in J. Eisenman et al., China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
99. Interview with Chinese diplomat, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 15 May 2007.
100. Interview with Robin Sherborne, editor of Insight, Namibian political magazine, Windhoek, Namibia, 14 Aug. 2006.
101. Africa Research Bulletin, 16 Feb.-15 March 2006, p. 16855.
102. See I. Taylor, NEPAD: Toward Africa's Development or Another False Start? (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2005).
103. I. Taylor, 'Sino-African Relations in the Twenty-First Century: Time for Dialogue', Chinese Cross Currents 4/2 (2007).
104. D. Leonard and S. Struass, Africa's Stalled Development: International Causes and Cures (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2003) p. 13.
105. A. El-Tom, 'The Black Book of Sudan: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan', Journal of African National Affairs 1/2 (2003) pp. 25-35.
106. Zhao, Interpreting Chinese Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press 1996).
107. E. Downs, 'The Fact and Fiction of Sino-African Energy Relations', China Security 3/3 (2007) p. 48.
108. M. Yufeng, 'China's Interests and Strategy in the Middle East and the Arab World', in Eisenman et al.(eds.), China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
109. Zhao, Interpreting Chinese Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press 1996) p. 183.
110. L. Guijin, China-Africa Relations: Equality, Cooperation and Mutual Development (Johannesburg: Institute for Security Studies 2004), cited in Eisenman China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
111. N. Barma and E. Ratner, 'Chinese Illiberalism', Democracy 2 (2006) pp. 56-68.
112. Quoted in Eisenman, 'China's Post-Cold War Strategy in Africa: Examining Beijing's Methods and Objectives', in Eisenman et al.China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-First Century (New York and London: M.E. Sharpe 2008)
113. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007).
114. J. Allen, Lost Geographies of Power (Blackwell: Oxford 2003).
115. J. Allen, Lost Geographies of Power (Blackwell: Oxford 2003).
116. G. Mohan and M. Power, 'Africa, China and the New Economic Geography of Development', Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 30/1 (2009) pp. 24-28.
117. Taylor, China's New Role(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2009).
118. Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 2007).
119. J. Ramo, The Beijing Consensus (London: Foreign Policy Centre 2004).