"Dancing on eggs": Charles H. Bynum, racial politics, and the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, 1938-1954

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 84, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 217-247

  Mawdsley, Stephen E ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

African american; Basil O'Connor; Charles H. Bynum; Franklin D. Roosevelt; Health care; March of Dimes; National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis; Poliomyelitis; Race; Tuskegee institute; Warm springs

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; HEALTH SERVICE; HISTORY; HUMAN; POLIOMYELITIS; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIAL PROBLEM; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; UNITED STATES; PREJUDICE;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; POLIOMYELITIS; PREJUDICE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RACE RELATIONS; UNITED STATES; VOLUNTARY HEALTH AGENCIES;

EID: 77955971706     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (259)

1. "1952: Campaign Guide, " Series 1: Campaign Materials, Box 2, Fund Raising Records, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, New York (henceforth denoted as MDA), p. 78.
2. "Polio Swimming Hole in Vicksburg, Mississippi, " Jet Magazine, 24 Jan. 1952, p. 37.
3. "Polio Epidemic Hits Mississippi, " Jet Magazine, 6 Dec. 1951, pp. 14-15.
4. Marc Shell, Polio and Its Aftermath: The Paralysis of Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 140.
5. Frederick C. Robbins, "The History of Polio Vaccine Development, " in Vaccines, Fourth Edition, ed. Stanley A. Plotkin and Walter A. Orenstein (Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2004);
6. and Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, and History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 104.
7. Julie K. Silver and Daniel J. Wilson, Polio Voices (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2007), p. 38.
8. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 61-64, 73-74.
9. David L. Sills, The Volunteers: Means and Ends in a National Organization (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1957), pp. 48, 136;
10. "To Aid Paralysis Victims, " New York Times, 25 Dec. 1938, p. 16;
11. and O'Connor to Thomas, 23 May 1938, Series 1, "National Medical Association, " Box 14, Pub. Rel. Records, MDA.
12. Susan L. Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995);
13. and Vanessa Northington Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
14. "A Celebration of the Life of Charles Hudson Bynum, " Funeral Program, 27 Apr. 1996
15. Dianne H. McDonald private collection, New York; and Bernard to Savage, 19 June 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
16. Todd L. Savitt, Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978);
17. Susan M. Reverby, ed., Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000);
18. Keith Wailoo, Dying in the City of the Blues: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001);
19. Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco's Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001);
20. and Gwenn M. Jensen, "System Failure: Health-Care Deficiencies in the World War II Japanese American Detention Centers, " Bull. Hist. Med., 1999, 73:602-28.
21. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (n. 7), pp. 2, 88, 145.
22. Naomi Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio: Warm Springs, Tuskegee, and the March of Dimes, " Am. J. Public Health, 2007, 97:784-95.
23. Sills, The Volunteers (n. 8), p. 48;
24. Edith P. Chappell and John F. Hume, "A Black Oasis: Tuskegee's Flight Against Infantile Paralysis, 1941-1975, " Series 4: Historical Studies, Box 4, History of the NFIP, MDA, p. 41.
25. Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio" (n. 13), p. 786;
26. and Wailoo, Dying in the City of the Blues (n. 11).
27. Chappell and Hume, "A Black Oasis" (n. 14), pp. 30-31;
28. and Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio" (n. 13), pp. 784-85.
29. Bynum to O'Connor, 1 Nov. 1948, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA, p. 6;
30. and Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio" (n. 13), pp. 786-87.
31. Francis to Weaver, 10 Dec. 1946, Series 14: Poliomyelitis, Box 15, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
32. Chappell and Hume, "A Black Oasis" (n. 14), p. 31.
33. Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio" (n. 13), p. 793.
34. Bynum to Department Heads, Miscellaneous Facts, 1941-1951, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
35. and Christopher Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions, 1956, " Series 1, Box 2, History of NFIP Records, MDA, p. 15. Christopher Lasch (1939-94) would later become an American cultural historian at the University of Rochester.
36. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988, " Series 1: Interview Transcripts [uncorrected version], Box 1, Oral History Records, MDA, p. 5;
37. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (n. 7), pp. 69-72;
38. David W. Rose, Images of America: March of Dimes (Charleston, S. C.: Arcadia, 2003), pp. 24-25;
39. Shell, Polio and Its Aftermath (n. 4), p. 202;
40. and "Campaign Beneficiaries, " Baltimore Afro-American, 3 Feb. 1942, p. 17. It is not known how black American patients were treated once they were admitted to these facilities.
41. "No Color Line in Baltimore Polio Hospital, " Baltimore Afro-American, 26 Jan. 1946, p. 28.
42. Heather Green Wooten, "The Polio Years in Harris and Galveston Counties, 1930-1962, " (Ph. D. diss., University of Texas at Galveston, 2006), p. 143.
43. Sills, The Volunteers (n. 8), p. 45;
44. and Victor Cohn, Four Billion Dimes (Minneapolis: Minneapolis Star and Tribune, 1955), p. 60.
45. Nina Gilden Seavey, Jane S. Smith, and Paul Wagner, eds., A Paralyzing Fear: The Triumph over Polio in America (New York: TV Books, 1998), pp. 157-61, quotation on p. 157.
46. Schell, Polio and Its Aftermath (n. 4), p. 202;
47. and Miracle at Hickory (New York: National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, 1944), MDA.
48. "Total of 197 Polio Cases in Virginia, " The Bee, 9 Aug. 1944, p. 2.
49. Bynum to Department Heads, 18 Jan. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA. This issue requires further scholarly attention.
50. "Paralysis Center Set Up for Negroes, " New York Times, 22 May 1939, p. 15.
51. Green Wooten, "The Polio Years" (n. 24), pp. 70-77;
52. and Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves (n. 9).
53. "Negro Polio Victims Get Foundation Aid, " New York Times, 21 Dec. 1945, p. 13;
54. and Green Wooten, "The Polio Years" (n. 24), pp. 38-39, 75-77.
55. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (n. 7), pp. 38-39;
56. Naomi Rogers, Dirt and Disease: Polio before FDR (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992), p. 168;
57. and Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: William Morrow, 1990), pp. 57-61.
58. Cohn, Four Billion Dimes (n. 25), p. 51;
59. and Chapter XI, "Part 2: Final Draft, Volume 1, Book 2: National Administration and Policies of the NFIP, " Series 1, Box 2, History of NFIP Records, MDA, p. 460.
60. Wallace Terry, Missing Pages: Black Journalists of Modern America: An Oral History (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007);
61. and Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Random House, 2006).
62. Roscoe C. Brown, "The National Negro Health Week Movement, " J. Negro Educ., 1937, 6:553-64;
63. and Smith, Sick and Tired (n. 9), chap. 3.
64. Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves (n. 9).
65. P. Preston Reynolds, "The Federal Government's Use of Title VI and Medicare to Racially Integrate Hospitals in the United States, 1963 Through 1967, " Am. J. Public Health, 1997, 87:1850-58;
66. Vanessa N. Gamble, "Black Autonomy Versus White Control: Black Hospitals and the Dilemmas of White Philanthropy, 1920-1940, " Minerva: A Review of Science, Learning and Policy, 1997, 35:247-67;
67. and Darlene Clark Hine, Black Women in White: Racial Conflict and Cooperation in the Nursing Profession, 1890-1950 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).
68. "The Truth Shall Make You Free! Heed the Truth, You Who are Thinking of Voting for Franklin D. Roosevelt, " Baltimore Afro-American, 12 Oct. 1936, p. 3;
69. and "Warm Springs Can't Admit Colored, " Baltimore Afro-American, 30 Jan. 1937, p. 7.
70. "The Truth Shall Make You Free!" (n. 39), p. 3.
71. "Warm Springs Can't Admit Colored" (n. 39), p. 7.
72. Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio" (n. 13), p. 787.
73. Chappell and Hume, "A Black Oasis" (n. 14), p. 41.
74. Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978);
75. and John B. Kirby, Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era: Liberalism and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980).
76. Chappell and Hume, "A Black Oasis" (n. 14), p. 41.
77. Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves (n. 9), pp. 40, 110;
78. and Smith, Sick and Tired (n. 9), p. 63.
79. Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves (n. 9), pp. 109-11.
80. Christopher Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions, 1956" (n. 21), p. 7.
81. "Paralysis Center Set Up for Negroes" (n. 30);
82. and Jeanne L. Brand, "Chapter II: The Response to Developing Problems of Medical Care, 1940-1946, " Series 1, Box 2, History of NFIP Records, MDA, pp. 88-90.
83. Thomas to NFIP, 14 May 1938, Series 1, "National Medical Association, " Box 14, Pub. Rel. Records, MDA;
84. and Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions" (n. 21), p. 6b.
85. Givens to Warm Springs, 11 Oct. 1938, Series 1, "National Medical Association, " Box 14, Pub. Rel. Records, MDA.
86. Henry S. Enck, "Tuskegee Institute and Northern White Philanthropy: A Case Study in Fund Raising, 1900-1915, " J. Negro Hist., 1980, 65:336-48;
87. Chappell and Hume, "A Black Oasis" (n. 14), p. xii;
88. and Reverby, Tuskegee's Truths (n. 11).
89. "Paralysis Center Set Up for Negroes" (n. 30).
90. Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions" (n. 21), p. 11.
91. Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves (n. 9).
92. Divisiveness was common during the black health movement when white philanthropies supported separate black medical institutions. See Gamble, "Black Autonomy Versus White Control" (n. 38);
93. and Darlene Clark Hine, "Black Professionals and Race Consciousness: Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 1890-1950, " J. Am. Hist., 2003, 89:1279-94.
94. Rogers, "Race and the Politics of Polio" (n. 13), p. 788;
95. and Green Wooten, "The Polio Years" (n. 24), p. 76.
96. "Reporter Visits FDR's GA. Home, " Baltimore Afro-American, 14 Sep. 1940 as cited in Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions" (n. 21), p. 8;
97. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (n. 7), p. 65;
98. and Theo Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs: FDR In Georgia, 1924-1945 (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978), pp. 90-93.
99. Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions" (n. 21), p. 10.
100. Bousfield to Pittsburgh Courier, 9 Dec. 1940 as cited in Lasch, "Chapter XI: Aid to Negro Institutions" (n. 21), p. 9.
101. Chappell and Hume, "A Black Oasis" (n. 14), p. 52, 58.
102. Clara Yelder in A Paralyzing Fear (n. 26), pp. 154-55.
103. Sills, The Volunteers (n. 8), pp. 22-25.
104. Cohn, Four Billion Dimes (n. 25), p. 52;
105. "Dimes Are Sought in Paralysis Drive, " New York Times, 24 Jan. 1938, p. 23;
106. and Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 33), p. 73.
107. Sills, The Volunteers (n. 8), p. 39.
108. Smith, Patenting the Sun (n. 33), p. 69.
109. O'Connor to Staff, 27 Mar. 1942, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
110. "Kingsbury, Warren-November 13, 1987, " Series 1: Interview Transcripts [uncorrected version], Box 1, Oral History Records, MDA, pp. 29-30.
111. Bynum to Van Riper, 21 May 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
112. "Original Chapter Members, " 20 Nov. 1940, Chapter Personnel, Alabama, Tuskegee Institute (Macon County), MDA.
113. Bynum to Van Riper, 21 May 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
114. Bynum to O'Connor, 23 Jul. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
115. Bynum to O'Connor, 5 Mar. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
116. and "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), pp. 7-8.
117. Bynum to Jean, 11 Jan. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
118. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), p. 17.
119. Green Wooten, "The Polio Years" (n. 24), pp. 123-24.
120. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), p. 1.
121. Bynum to O'Connor, 5 Mar. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
122. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (n. 7), p. 71.
123. Tony Badger, "Fatalism, Not Gradualism: The Crisis of Southern Liberalism, 1945-65, " in The Making of Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement, ed. Tony Badger and Brian Ward (New York: New York University Press, 1996), p. 75.
124. Lester M. Jones, "The Editorial Policy of Negro Newspapers of 1917-18 as Compared with That of 1941-42, " J. Negro Hist., 1944, 29:24-31;
125. Lee Finkle, "The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest during World War II, " J. Am. Hist., 1973, 60:692-713;
126. Neil A. Wynn, The Afro-American and the Second World War (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1976);
127. A. Russell Buchanan, Black Americans in World War II (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio, 1977);
128. Charlotte G. O'Kelly, "Black Newspapers and the Black Protest Movement: Their Historical Relationship, 1827-1945, " Phylon, 1982, 43:1-14;
129. and Cynthia Taylor, A. Philip Randolph: The Religious Journey of an African American Labor Leader (New York: New York University Press, 2006).
130. Richard M. Dalfiume, "The 'Forgotten Years' of the Negro Revolution, " J. Am. Hist., 1968, 55:90-106;
131. Allida M. Black, Casting Her Own Shadow: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Shaping of Postwar Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), pp. 53-55;
132. Nat Brandt, Harlem at War: The Black Experience in WWII (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1996);
133. and David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 762-70.
134. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), p. 1;
135. and Bynum to LaPorte, 28 Feb. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA, p. 2.
136. Chapter XI, "Part 2: Final Draft, Volume 1, Book 2: National Administration and Policies of the NFIP, " Series 1, Box 2, History of NFIP Records, MDA, p. 457.
137. "A Celebration of the Life of Charles Hudson Bynum" (n. 10).
138. Laurence Foster, ed., Lincoln University Alumni Directory (Pennsylvania: Lincoln University, 1946), p. 22;
139. and "Charles Hudson Bynum, " Resume, undated [c. 1930s], Dianne H. McDonald private collection, New York.
140. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22).
141. "Charles H. Bynum" [Condensed] Resume, undated [c. 1970s], Dianne H. McDonald private collection, New York.
142. Rodney D. Coates, "Social Action, Radical Dialectics, and Popular Protests: Treatment of African American Leaders and Intellectuals by the Press, " J. Black Stud., 1999, 30:85-102;
143. Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics and Culture during the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
144. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), p. 14.
145. Editorial, "' Negro' With A Capital 'N., '" New York Times, 7 Mar. 1930, p. 20;
146. and Donald L. Grant and Mildred Bricker Grant, "Some Notes on the Capital 'N, '" Phylon, 1975, 36:435-43.
147. Joseph Michael Phillips, "The Fire This Time: The Battle over Racial, Regional, and Religious Identities in Dallas, Texas, 1860-1990" (Ph. D. thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 2002), p. 298.
148. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt Against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women's Campaign Against Lynching (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993);
149. John Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York: Knopf, 1994);
150. Ann Wells Ellis, "A Crusade Against 'Wretched Attitudes': The Commission on Interracial Cooperation's Activities in Atlanta, " Atlanta Hist. J., Spring 1979, 23:21-44;
151. Julia Anne McDonough, "Men and Women of Good Will: A History of the Commission on Interracial Cooperation and the Southern Regional Council, 1919-1954" (Ph. D. thesis, University of Virginia, 1993);
152. and Ann Wells Ellis, "'Uncle Sam Is My Shepherd': The Commission on Interracial Cooperation and the New Deal in Georgia, " Atlanta Hist. J., Spring 1986, 30:47-63.
153. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), p. 2.
154. Ibid., p. 4.
155. Ibid., p. 1.
156. Ibid., p. 1.
157. Bynum to Department Heads, 18 Jan. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
158. David McBride, Integrating the City of Medicine: Blacks in Philadelphia Health Care, 1910-1965 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989);
159. and Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), pp. 36, 176, 183, 184.
160. Bynum to O'Connor, 1 Nov. 1948, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
161. Green Wooten, "The Polio Years" (n. 24), pp. 124-25.
162. Ibid., p. 142.
163. Bynum to Van Riper, 8 Mar. 1946, Series 14, Box 15, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
164. Bynum to LaPorte, 2 Apr. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
165. Bynum to LaPorte, 2 Apr. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
166. Bynum to LaPorte, 2 Apr. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
167. Bynum to LaPorte, 2 Apr. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
168. Bynum to Van Riper, 1 Jun. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Program Records, MDA.
169. Smith, Sick and Tired (n. 9), p. 81.
170. Edward H. Beardsley, "Desegregating Southern Medicine, 1945-1970, " Int. Soc. Sci. Rev., 1996, 71:37-54;
171. and "Special Feature: A Pioneer in Public Health, " The Black Young Professionals' Public Health Network, Fall 2005, 1:1-2.
172. Bynum to Van Riper, 1 Jun. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
173. Dr. Paul Cornely, "Report of the Consultant to the Director of Inter-Racial Activities, " Aug. 1946, Dianne H. McDonald private collection, New York.
174. "Negro Winners of Scholarship and Fellowship Awards, " 1954, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
175. and "Negroes Get $80, 000 Grant for Medical Study, " Jet Magazine, 1 May 1952, p. 66.
176. "Grants to Selected Institutions, 1938-1954, " Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
177. Enck, "Tuskegee Institute and Northern White Philanthropy" (n. 52);
178. Reverby, Tuskegee's Truths (n. 11);
179. Victor Cohn, Four Billion Dimes (n. 25), p. 51;
180. and Brooks to Bynum, 28 Oct. [1946], Dianne H. McDonald private collection, New York.
181. Bynum to LaPorte, 12 Sep. 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
182. David W. Rose, "March of Dimes Polio Poster Children (1942-1959), " MDA, p. 1.
183. Bynum to Savage, 19 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
184. Bynum to Savage, 19 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
185. Bynum to Savage, 19 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
186. Bynum to Savage, 19 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
187. Bernard to LaPorte, 23 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
188. "1952: Campaign Guide" (n. 1), pp. 78-79.
189. LaPorte to Bynum, 24 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
190. LaPorte to Bynum, 24 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
191. Wear to O'Connor, 21 Nov. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
192. Bynum to O'Connor, 1 Nov. 1948, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA, p. 8.
193. Wear to O'Connor, 21 Nov. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
194. Wear to O'Connor, 21 Nov. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
195. Wear to O'Connor, 21 Nov. 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
196. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (n. 7), 80.
197. Ibid., p. 69.
198. Bynum to Savage, 4 Feb. 1949, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA, p. 2.
199. "1954: Campaign Guide, " Series 1, Box 2, Fund Raising Records, MDA, pp. 75-77;
200. and " 1956: Campaign Guide, " Series 1, Box 2, Fund Raising Records, MDA, pp. 70-71.
201. Gregg Mitman, "The Color of Money: Campaigning for Health in Black and White America, " in Imagining Illness: Public Health and Visual Culture, ed. David Serlin (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, in press).
202. Sara Lawrence Lightfoot, Balm in Gilead: Journey of a Healer (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1988);
203. Peter Kolchin, "Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America, " J. Am. Hist., 2002, 89:154-73;
204. and Mitman, "The Color of Money" (n. 135).
205. "1952: Campaign Guide" (n. 1), p. 79;
206. and "1954: Campaign Guide" (n. 134), p. 75.
207. "We'll Be Seeing a Lot of This Young Lady, " New York Times, 17 Oct. 1946, p. 24;
208. and "Poster Girl for 1947 March Of Dimes, " New York Times, 10 Jan. 1947, p. 23.
209. "1951: Campaign Guide, " Series 1, Box 2, Fund Raising Records, MDA, p. 85;
210. "1952: Campaign Guide" (n. 1), p. 78;
211. and "1954: Campaign Guide" (n. 134), p. 76.
212. Mitman, "The Color of Money" (n. 135).
213. Leslie J. Reagan, Nancy Tomes, and Paula A. Treichler, eds., Medicine's Moving Pictures: Medicine, Health, and Bodies in American Film and Television (Rochester, N. Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2007), pp. 19-36, 49, 163-99.
214. Bynum to State Representatives (Regions II and V), 19 Nov. 1954, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
215. Bynum to O'Connor, 1 Nov. 1948, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
216. Bynum to State Representatives (Regions II and V), 19 Nov. 1954, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
217. and "Polio Film Shown, " Baltimore Afro-American, 28 Dec. 1946, p. 15.
218. Dime Power, National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, DVD (1954; New York: March of Dimes Archives, 2007), MDA.
219. Russell W. Brown and James H. M. Henderson, "The Mass Production and Distribution of HeLa Cells at Tuskegee Institute, 1953-55, " J. Hist. Med. & All. Sci., 1983, 38:415-31.
220. Bynum to Stegen, 23 Nov. 1953, "National Medical Association, " Series 1, Box 14, Pub. Rel. Records, MDA;
221. and Bynum to Wilkins, 27 Nov. 1953, "National Medical Association, " Series 1, Box 14, Pub. Rel. Records, MDA.
222. New Mexico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, The Farmington Report: Civil Rights for Native Americans 30 Years Later (New Mexico State Advisory Committee, November 2005), http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/ 122705-FarmingtonReportpdf, last viewed Sep. 2007.
223. Bynum to Barrows, 14 Feb. 1952, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
224. National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis June 1945 Report, "Monthly Reports of Departments and Divisions, 1945-1949, " Series 14, Box 14, Med. Prog. Records, MDA, p. 5.
225. Bynum to Savage, 16 Apr. 1947, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
226. Bynum to Savage, 4 Feb. 1949, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
227. Bynum to O'Connor, 23 July 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
228. Bynum to O'Connor, 23 July 1945, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
229. "Bynum, Charles-January 15, 1988" (n. 22), p. 17.
230. Bynum to LaPorte, 2 July 1946, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
231. Bynum to Ducas, 11 Jan. 1955, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA. For evidence of ongoing challenges
232. see "Ban Florida Polio Show over Negro in Cast, " Jet Magazine, 16 Sep. 1954, p. 57;
233. "Student Bias Cancels W. Va. Polio Benefit Concert, " Jet Magazine, 24 Feb. 1955, p. 28.
234. Bynum to Savage, 9 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA.
235. Bynum to Barrows, 14 Feb. 1952, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
236. Bynum to Savage, 30 Mar. 1948, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
237. and Bynum to Savage, 9 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA, p. 3.
238. Brashier to Donaldson, 3 Oct. 1956, Series 4, Box 8, Conf. and Meetings Records, MDA.
239. Dickson to Bynum, 16 Oct. 1956, Series 4, Box 8, Conf. and Meetings Records, MDA;
240. and Bynum to Dyer, 3 Oct. 1956, Series 4, Box 8, Conf. and Meetings Records, MDA.
241. Bynum to Savage, 9 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA, pp. 1-3.
242. Bynum to Ducas, 30 Nov. 1954, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
243. Bynum to Van Riper, 25 Aug. 1952, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
244. Bynum to Walcott, 17 Nov. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA.
245. Bynum to Savage, 9 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA, p. 2.
246. Smith, Sick and Tired (n. 9), p. 43.
247. Bynum to Chenault, 17 Nov. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA.
248. Coss to Savage, 7 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA;
249. and Bynum, "Summary of 1948 Tuskegee Meeting, " Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA.
250. Coss to Savage, 7 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA;
251. and Bynum, "Tuskegee Meeting of Negro Campaign Leaders, " 1 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, MDA.
252. Bynum to Savage, 9 Dec. 1948, Series 1, Box 1, Fund Raising Records, p. 3.
253. Bynum to Ducas, 22 Oct. 1956, Series 4, Box 8, Conf. and Meetings Records, MDA.
254. Smith, Sick and Tired (n. 9).
255. Bynum to Savage, 17 Jan. 1947, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
256. Bynum to Savage, 17 Jan. 1947, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
257. Bynum to Ducas, 5 Mar. 1956, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA.
258. Bynum to Coss, 20 Feb. 1951, Series 14, Box 13, Med. Prog. Records, MDA;
259. and Bynum to Ducas, 22 Oct. 1956, Series 4, Box 8, Conf. and Meetings Records, MDA.