The role of regional advisory councils in the european common fisheries policy: Legal constraints and future options

International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 289-346

  Long, Ronán ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND   (Ireland)

Author keywords

2009 Green Paper on Reform Of The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP); common sheries policy; Lisbon Treaty; Regional Advisory Councils (RACs); stakeholder participation in european sheries management; Treaty on the functioning of the european Union

Indexed keywords

COMMON FISHERIES POLICY; DECISION MAKING; EUROPEAN COMMISSION; EUROPEAN UNION; FISHERY REGULATION; LEGISLATIVE IMPLEMENTATION; POLICY REFORM; REGIONAL POLICY; STAKEHOLDER;

ATLANTIC OCEAN; BALTIC SEA; MEDITERRANEAN SEA; NORTH SEA;

EID: 77955969826     PISSN: 09273522     EISSN: 15718085     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157180810X516980     Document Type: Review

References (318)

1. A draft version of this article was presented by the author at the Inter-RAC Conference, Decision-Making in the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, Merchants Hall, Edinburgh, 3 November 2009. The author wishes to acknowledge support from the North Sea Regional Advisory Council, the Government of Scotland and the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in the UK. The author also wishes to acknowledge incisive comments from a peer-reviewer on an earlier draft. Any opinions expressed herein are those of the author.
2. Where possible, the term "European Union" is used in this article in preference to the "European Community" in line with the changes brought about by the Treaty on European Union (TEU) which states in Art. 1 that the "Union shall replace and succeed the European Community". The Treaty of Lisbon amends the TEU and the Treaty establishing the European Community (EC Treaty) and was signed by the representatives of the 27 Member States of the EU in Lisbon on 13 December 2007. The Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009. Under the Lisbon Treaty, the EC Treaty is renamed as the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU). The TEU, the TFEU and the Charter of Fundamental Rights constitute the EU's treaty structure. A copy of the Consolidated Treaties is published in the Official Journal of the European Union at OJ C 306/50, 17.12.2007. An electronic copy is available at: htpp://europa.eu/lisbon-treaty/full-text/index-en.htm.
3. See the example cited by the Rt. Hon. Huw Irranca-Davies MP, Minister for the Marine and Natural Environment in the United Kingdom (UK), wherein the Council discusses the statutory process that ought to be followed by fishermen when repairing a square mesh panel on towed fishing gear for use in the Baltic Sea. Paper delivered at the Inter-RAC Conference, Merchants Hall, Edinburgh, 4 November 2009; available at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/ about/who/ministers/speeches/irranca-davies/hid091104.htm.
4. See http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/reform/.
5. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 14 June 1992 (1992) 31 International Legal Materials 874.
6. See Agenda 21, Chapter 17, paragraph 23.2, in UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/REV.1, Vol.1, 12 August 1992.
7. See D. Freestone, 'Principles Applicable to Modern Oceans Governance' (2008) 23(3) IJMCL 385-391.
8. Adopted at the IUCN World Conservation Congress, Barcelona, in 2008. Available at: www.iucn.org.
9. For commentary, see D. Freestone, 'The Modern Principles of High Seas Governance. The Legal Underpinnings' (2009) 39(1) International Environmental Policy and Law 44-49.
10. Art. 31(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002 of 20 December 2002 on the conservation and sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources under the CFP. OJ L 358/59, 31.12.2002.
11. Art. 2(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, in ibid.
12. The precise geographical coverage of RACs is set out in Annex 1 to Council Decision 2004/585/EC of 19 July 2004 establishing Regional Advisory Councils under the Common Fisheries Policy. OJ L 256/17, 3.8.2004.
13. See, inter alia: D. Uyttendaele, 'Regional Advisory Councils for Fisheries Management and their Relation to the Marine Strategy', European Environment and Sustainable Development Advisory Councils' Roundtable on the Common Fisheries Policy, Berlin, 5 October 2004. Available at: http://www.eeac-net.org/conferences/twelve/Presentations/Roundtable- CommonFisheriesPolicy-Uyttendaele.ppt; and the sources cited at note 20 infra.
14. Recital 4 of Council Decision 2007/409/EC of 11 June 2007 amending Decision 2004/ 585/EC establishing Regional Advisory Councils under the Common Fisheries Policy. OJ L 155/68, 15.6.2007.
15. Art. 2(2)(c) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
16. See, for example, Art. 6.13 of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries which provides that: "States should, to the extent permitted by national laws and regulations, ensure that decision-making processes are transparent and achieve timely solutions to urgent matters. States, in accordance with appropriate procedures, should facilitate consultation and the effective participation of industry, fishworkers, environmental and other interested organizations in decision-making with respect to the development of laws and policies related to fisheries management, development, international lending and aid". The FAO Code of Conduct is available at www.fao.org.
17. Art. 1 of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters of 25 June 1998; done at Aarhus, Denmark, 25 June 1998; entered into force on 30 October 2001; 2161 UNTS 447; 38 ILM 517 (1999).
18. Recital 9 of the Preamble to the Aarhus Convention. The EU approved the Convention on 17 February 2005 and many of its provisions are now reflected in many European legal instruments adopted pursuant to Council Decision of 17 February 2005 on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Community, of the Convention on access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters. OJ L 124, 17.5.2005, pp. 1-3.
19. Para. 38 of the Guidelines adopted by the second meeting of the parties at Almaty, Kazakhstan, in May 2005. United Nations Economic and Social Council Doc. ECE/MP.PP/ 2005/2/Add.5, 20 June 2005. Available at: http://www.unece.org/ env/documents/2005/pp/ ece/ece.mp.pp.2005.2.add.5.e.pdf.
20. Report of an Inter-RAC Conference hosted by the Scottish Government and jointly funded by Marine Scotland and DEFRA on "Decision-Making in the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy", Merchants Hall, Edinburgh, 3-4 November 2009. Available at: http:// www.nsrac.org/wp-content/. . ./11/Inter-RAC-CFP-Edinburgh-Report.pdf.
21. See, inter alia: Communication from the Commission to the Council and European Parliament, Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final. Brussels, 17.6.2008. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2008 :0364:FIN:EN:PDF.
22. Also, E. Penas, 'The Fishery Conservation Policy of the European Union after 2002: Towards Long-term Sustainability' (2007) ICES Journal of Marine Science 64: 588-595 at 592;
23. M. Sissenwine, D. Symes, Reflections on the Common Fisheries Policy (2007) pp. 66-68. Available at: http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/denmark/ press/rapporter-ogdokumenter/ reflections-on-the-common-fish.pdf.
24. See, for example, the North Sea RAC recommendations on the recovery of plaice and sole stocks were not accepted by the Commission; Penas, ibid., at 593.
25. Proposal for a Council Decision establishing Regional Advisory Councils under the Common Fisheries Policy. COM(2003) 607 final. Brussels, 15.10.2003, at 3. Available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do-uri=COM: 2003:0607:FIN:EN:PDF.
26. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM(2009) 163 final, Brussels, 22.4.2009. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2009: 0163:FIN:EN:PDF.
27. Sissenwine and Symes, op. cit., supra note 20 at 67.
28. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, op. cit., supra note 20 at 11.
29. UK House of Lords Paper 146-I. European Union Committee. 21st Report. The Progress of the Common Fisheries Policy. Volume I: Report. Chairman: Lord Sewel. Session 2007-2008, para. 136. Available at: http://www.publications. parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ldeucom/146/146.pdf.
30. See: http://nobelprize.org/.
31. See, inter alios: X. Basurto, E. Ostrom, 'The Core Challenges of Moving Beyond Garret Harding' (2009) 1(3) Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research 255-259;
32. E. Ostrom, R. Gardner, J. Walker, Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009);
33. E. Ostrom, 'The Value-added of Laboratory Experiments for the Study of Institutions and Common-Pool Resources' (2006) 2 Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization 149-163;
34. E. Ostrom, Understanding Institutional Diversity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005);
35. E. Ostrom, J. Walker, R. Gardner, 'Covenants With and Without a Sword: Self-governance Is Possible' (1992) 86(2) American Political Science Review 404-417;
36. E. Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
37. This overview is updated from R. Long, Marine Resource Law (Dublin: Thomson Round Hall, 2007). Available at: www.roundhall.thomson.com. There are a number of excellent academic studies on the CFP, including: R.R. Churchill, D. Owen, The EU Common Fisheries Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010);
38. which follows on from the acclaimed study by R.R. Churchill, EEC Fisheries Law (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1986).
39. Also see: House of Lords, European Union Committee, 'European Union Fisheries Legislation: Report With Evidence' (London: Stationary Office, 2005);
40. N. Wolff, Fisheries and the Environment: Public International and European Community Law Aspects (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2002);
41. C. Lequesne, The Politics of Fisheries in the European Union (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).
42. On enforcement and compliance, see, inter alia: R. Long, P. Curran, Enforcing the Common Fishery Policy (Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2000);
43. A. Berg, Implementing and Enforcing European Fishery Law: The Implementation and Enforcement of the Common Fisheries Policy in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (The Hague: Kluwer Law, 1999).
44. Art. 1 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
45. Arts. 32-38 of the EC Treaty.
46. On the failure of the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission and the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries to deliver sustainable fisheries, see Churchill, EEC Fisheries Law, op. cit., supra note 29 at 5.
47. Council Regulation No. 2141/70 laying down a common structural policy for the fishing industry. OJ L 236, 27.10.1970, p. 1. English Spec. Ed. (III) 703; and Council Regulation No. 2142/70 on the common organisation of the market in fishery products. OJ L 236, 27.10.1970, p. 5. OJ English Spec. Ed. (III) 707.
48. Arts. 17(1) and 20(1) and Recitals 17 and 18 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
49. M. Holden, The Common Fisheries Policy: Origin, Evaluation and Future (2nd ed., updated by D. Garrod; Oxford: Fishing News Books, 1996), passim.
50. J. Wakefield, 'Fisheries: A Failure of Values' (2009) 46 Common Market Law Review 431-470.
51. The first enlargement took place in 1973 with the accession of Ireland, UK and Denmark. The second took place in 1981 with the accession of Greece and the third with Spain and Portugal in 1986. This was followed by the fourth enlargement in 1995 with Austria, Sweden, Finland and the fifth in 2004 with Malta, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Hungary. The sixth took place in 2007 with the accession of Bulgaria and Romania. At the time of writing, accession negotiations are underway with Croatia.
52. The North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) comprises five Contracting Parties: Denmark (in respect of the Faroe Islands and Greenland), the European Union, Iceland, Norway and the Russian Federation. All are party to the Convention on Future Multilateral Cooperation in the North-East Atlantic Fisheries, adopted 24 October 1978, entered into force 1 January 1979, OJ L 227, 12.8.1981, p. 21.
53. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) is responsible for the conservation of tunas and tuna-like species in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas. The International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas has 48 Contracting Parties including the EU; adopted 14 May 1966, entered into force 21 March 1969, OJ L 162, 18.6.1986, pp. 34-38.
54. Council Regulation (EEC) No. 3760/92 of 20 December 1992 establishing a Community system for fisheries and aquaculture. OJ L 389, 31.12.1992, p.1 (since repealed);
55. Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2847/93 of 12 October 1993 establishing a control system applicable to the common fisheries policy. OJ No L 261, 20. 10. 1993, p. 1 (since repealed).
56. See, inter alia: Green Paper: On the future of the Common Fisheries Policy COM (2001) 131 final, Brussels, 20.3.2001, available at: http://europa.eu/documentation/official-docs/greenpapers/ index-en.htm;
57. Communication for the Commission on the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy ("Roadmap") COM(2002) 181 final, Brussels, 28.5.2002, available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2002:0181:FIN: EN:PDF.
58. Penas, op. cit., supra note 20 at 588.
59. Council Regulation (EC) 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
60. See, inter alia: European Commission, Communication From The Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Towards a strategy to protect and conserve the marine environment, Brussels, COM(2002) 539 final, available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2002:0539:FIN:EN: PDF;
61. Communication From The Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Application of the precautionary principle and multiannual arrangements for setting TACs, COM(2000) 803 final, Brussels, 01.12.2000, available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2000: 0803:FIN: EN:PDF;
62. Communication From The Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: The role of the Common Fisheries Policy in implementing an ecosystem approach to marine management, COM(2008) 187 final and SEC(2008) 449, Brussels, 11.4.2008, available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do- uri=COM:2008:0187:FIN:EN:PDF;.
63. See, for example, Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1475/2003 of 20 August 2003 on the protection of deep-water coral reefs from the effects of trawling in an area north-west of Scotland [2003] OJ L211/14, 21.8.2003.
64. See D. Symes (unpublished paper) who reviews several options in a paper entitled 'Regionalising the CFP: What Kind of Institutional Solution?' delivered at the Nordic Council of Ministers' Conference, 13 October 2009. Available at: http://www.cfp-regionalisation.eu/ regionalisation.pdf.
65. Council Regulation (EC) No. 1224/2009 of 20 Nov 2009 establishing a Community control system for ensuring compliance with the rules of the common fisheries policy, amending Regulations (EC) No. 847/96, (EC) No. 2371/2002, (EC) No. 811/2004, (EC) No. 768/2005, (EC) No. 2115/2005, (EC) No. 2166/2005, (EC) No. 388/2006, (EC) No. 509/2007, (EC) No. 676/2007, (EC) No. 1098/2007, (EC) No. 1300/2008, (EC) No. 1342/2008 and repealing Regulations (EEC) No. 2847/93, (EC) No. 1627/94 and (EC) No. 1966/2006, OJ L 343/1, 9; 22.12.2009. On enforcement and compliance see C. Johnson, 'Fisheries Enforcement in European Community Waters Since 2002-Developments in Non-Flag Enforcement' (2008) 23(2) IJMCL 249-270;
66. and the Court of Auditors, Special Report No. 7/2007 on the control, inspection and sanction systems relating to the rules on conservation of Community fisheries resources together with the Commission's replies (pursuant to Art. 248(4) second paragraph, EC) (2007/C 317/01). OJ C 317/1, 28.12.2007.
67. Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing the framework for Community action in field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive), OJ L 164, 25.6.2008.
68. Communication from the Commission, Towards a Future Maritime Policy for the Union: A European Vision for the Oceans and Seas, Brussels, COM (2006) 275 final, 7.6.2006, p. 2, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2006:0275: FIN:EN:PDF.
69. For discussion of the integrated maritime policy, see, inter alia: L. Juda, 'The European Union and Ocean Use Management: The Marine Strategy and the Maritime Policy' (2007) 38(3) Ocean Development and International Law 259-282;
70. T. Koivurova, 'A Note on the European Union's Integrated Maritime Policy' (2009) 40(2) Ocean Development & International Law 171-183.
71. COM(2008) 395 final, Brussels, 26.06.2008 at p. 11, available at: http://eur-lex.europa. eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2008:0395:FIN:EN:PDF. Also see L. van Hoof, J. van Tatenhove, 'EU Marine Policy on the Move: the Tension Between Fisheries and Maritime Policy' (2010) 34 (1) Marine Policy, in press.
72. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, Marine Policy. op. cit., supra note 23 at 4.
73. Marine Policy. Ibid., at 7.
74. Ibid..
75. Marine Policy. Ibid., at 8.
76. See, inter alia: A. Berghöfer et al., 'Stakeholder Participation in Ecosystem-based Approaches to Fisheries Management: A Synthesis From European Research Projects' (2008) 32(2) Marine Policy 243-253;
77. R. Varjopuro et al., 'Introduction: Interaction Between Environment and Fisheries-The Role of Stakeholder Participation' (2008) 32(2) Marine Policy 147-157;
78. J. L. Suárez de Vivero et al., 'The Paradox of Public Participation in Fisheries Governance. The Rising Number of Actors and the Devolution Process' (2008) 32(3) Marine Policy 319-325.
79. S. Fletcher, 'Stakeholder Representation and the Democratic Basis of Coastal Partnerships in the UK' (2003) 27(3) Marine Policy 229-240.
80. J. Raakjær Nielsen, A. Christensen, 'Sharing Responsibilities in Danish Fisheries Management- Experiences and Future Directions' (2006) 30(2) Marine Policy 181-188.
81. See, inter alia: S. Pascoe et al., 'Stakeholder Objective Preferences in Australian Commonwealth Managed Fisheries' (2009) 33(5) Marine Policy 750-758;
82. P. Pinto da Silva, A. Kitts, 'Collaborative Fisheries Management in the Northeast US: Emerging Initiatives and Future Directions' (2006) 30(6) Marine Policy 832-841.
83. Commission Decision 71/128/EEC OJ L 68, 22. 3. 1971, p. 18.
84. Commission Decision of 14 July 1999 renewing the Advisory Committee on Fisheries and Aquaculture. OJ L 187/70, 20. 7. 1999;
85. subsequently amended by Commission Decision of 16 December 2004 . OJ L 370/91, 17.12.2004.
86. Council Regulation (EC) No. 657/2000 of 27 March 2000 on closer dialogue with the fishing sector and groups affected by the common fisheries policy. OJ L 80/7. 31.3.2000.
87. Report on the Intermediate Evaluation of the ACFA, p. II. Available at: http://ec.europa. eu/fisheries/publications/studies/acfa-evaluation-2008-en.pdf.
88. Churchill and Owen, Report on the Intermediate Evaluation of the ACFA.op. cit., supra note 29 at 28.
89. European Commission, European Governance, A White Paper, COM (2001) 428 final, Brussels, 25.7.2001, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ site/en/com/2001/ com2001-0428en01.pdf.
90. Communication from the Commission on Impact Assessment, COM (2002) 276 final, Brussels, 5.6.2002, available at: http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/ 2005/february/tradoc- 121479.pdf.
91. Available at: www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1-en.htm.
92. European Commission, Impact Assessment Guidelines, 15.01.2009. Available at: http:// ec.europa.eu/governance/impact/commission-guidelines/docs/iag-2009- en.pdf.
93. For an example see the Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the Proposal for a Council Regulation establishing a Community control system for ensuring compliance with the rules of the Common Fisheries Policy Summary Of The Impact Assessment, Brussels, SEC(2008) 2761; available at: http://ec.europa.eu/ fisheries/publications/factsheets/legal-texts/ sec-2008-2761-en.pdf.
94. European Commission, Action plan for closer dialogue with the fishing industry and groups affected by the common fisheries policy, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/ corner/press/planaction-en.pdf.
95. See also, European Commission, Green Paper on the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy, op. cit., supra note 40.
96. Green Paper on the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy. Ibid., at 1.
97. Green Paper on the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy. Ibid., at 11.
98. Green Paper on the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy. Ibid., at 28.
99. Art. 43 (ex Art 37 EC Treaty) of the TFEU.
100. European Commission, European Governance, A White Paper, COM (2001) 428 final, op. cit., supra note 63;
101. Communication from the Commission of 5 June 2002, Action Plan "Simplifying and improving the regulatory environment", COM (2002) 278 final, Brussels, 5.6.2002, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2002:0 278:FIN:en:PDF.
102. Communication from the Commission. Towards a reinforced culture of consultation and dialogue-General principles and minimum standards for consultation of interested parties by the Commission. COM (2002) 704 final. Brussels, 11.12.2002, available at: http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do-uri=COM:2002:0704:FIN:en:PDF.
103. Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
104. Arts. 31 and 32 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid. Council Decision 2007/409/EC of 11 June 2007 amending Decision 2004/585/EC, op. cit., supra note 13.
105. Commission Decision 2007/222/EC of 4 April 2007 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for the south-western waters under the common fisheries policy, OJ L 95, 5.4.2007;
106. Commission Decision 2007/206/EC of 29 March 2007 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for the High-Seas/Long-Distance Fleet under the common fisheries policy, OJ L 91, 31.3.2007;
107. Commission Decision 2006/191/EC of 1 March 2006 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for the Baltic Sea under the common fisheries policy, OJ L 66, 8.3.2006;
108. Commission Decision 2005/668/EC of 22 September 2005 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for the north-western waters under the common fisheries policy, OJ L 249, 24.9.2005; Commission Decision 2005/606/ EC of 5 August 2005 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for pelagic stocks under the common fisheries policy, OJ L 206, 9.8.2005;
109. Commission Decision 2004/774/ EC of 9 Nov 2004 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for the North Sea under the common fisheries policy, OJ L 342, 18.11.2004;
110. Commission Decision of 29 August 2008 declaring operational the Regional Advisory Council for Mediterranean Sea under the Common Fisheries Policy, OJ L 232/12, 30.8.2008.
111. See, for example, Rules of Procedure for the North Sea Regional Advisory Council, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/press-corner/press/ planaction-en.pdf.
112. Art. 31(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
113. Art. 2(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.
114. 81 Art. 3 (1)(a) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.
115. Recital 27 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.
116. Art. 2(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.
117. Art. 37 of the EC Treaty is now Art. 43 of the TFEU.
118. Arts. 289(1) and 294 of the TFEU.
119. Art. 31(4) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
120. Thus, for example, the general principle of European law which prohibits discrimination on the grounds of nationality and which requires adherence to the principle of proportionality clearly curtails the Commission's power to act in a unilateral manner in relation to any specific recommendation from a RAC. Similarly, the requirement under the Basic Fishery Management Regulation for the Commission to comply with scientific advice when adopting measures under the CFP curtails the Commission from adhering to advice from a RAC if this is not scientifically sound. An example of such a conflict arose over the North Sea RAC recommendation for management measures aimed at facilitating the recovery of plaice and sole stocks which the Commission deemed as incompatible with the objectives of the CFP in promoting sustainable fisheries; Penas, op. cit., supra note 20.
121. Art. 31(5) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
122. Ibid..
123. Art. 31(4) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.
124. Art. 33 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.; and Commission Decision 2005/629/EC, OJ L 225/18, 31.8.2005.
125. Art. 33(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, ibid.
126. Art. 2(2) of Commission Decision 2005/629/EC, op. cit., supra note 91.
127. Art 31(5) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002 op. cit., supra note 9.
128. Council Decision 2004/585/EC (op. cit., supra note 11) allows for representatives of the "fisheries sector" and "other interest groups" to submit a request in this regard to the relevant Member States and to the Commission. This request must be compatible with the objectives, principles and guidelines of the CFP as set out in the Basic Fishery Management Regulation and shall include: (a) a statement of objectives; (b) operating principles; (c) initial rules of procedure; (d) the budget estimate; (e) a provisional list of organisations. Power is vested in the Member States concerned to determine whether the application is representative and accords with Council Decision 2004/585/EC (ibid.). They in turn must transmit a recommendation on the proposal to the Commission on the basis of common agreement. After evaluating the recommendation and possible amendments to the request, the Commission then decides whether or not to make the RAC operational. This decision must satisfy three procedural requirements, namely: it must be taken within three months of the request, it must specify the date at which the RACs become operational and it must be published in the Official Journal of the European Union.
129. Source: UK House of Lords Paper 146-I, OJ L. op. cit., supra note 26 at 39.
130. Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing the framework for Community action in field of marine environmental policy, OJ L 164, 25.6.2008.
131. Art. 8 of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, OJ L. op. cit., supra note 11.
132. COM (2008) 364 final, OJ L. op. cit., supra note 20 at 4.
133. See FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper 522 (Rev.1) (2009). Available at: http://www.fao.org/fishery/publications/technical-papers/en.
134. Art. 31(2) of Council Regulation (EC) No 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
135. Art. 1(2) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, op. cit., supra note 11.
136. Art. 1(3) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
137. Art. 6 of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
138. Art. 6(1) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
139. The current MOU dates from 2007 and is available at: http://www.ices.dk/ indexfla.asp.
140. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, op. cit., supra note 20 at 7.
141. UK House of Lords Paper 146-I, op cit., supra note 26 at 39. On 20 June 2007, Member States approved this annual budget on the grounds that the RACs were bodies pursuing an aim of general European interest. See: http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/documentation/publications/ cfp-factsheets/racs- en.pdf.
142. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, op. cit., supra note 20 at l.
143. Review of the Functioning of the RACs. Ibid., at 8.
144. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, mentions specifically the Baltic Sea RAC Conference on Control and Compliance in March 2007, the Joint RACs meeting on offshore marine protected areas in March 2008 or the North Sea RAC, and the North-Western Waters symposium on cod recovery in March 2007; op. cit., supra note 20.
145. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, OJ L 206, 22.07.1992, pp. 7-50.
146. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, op. cit., supra note 20 at 8.
147. Review of the Functioning of the RACs. Ibid., at 7.
148. Review of the Functioning of the RACs.Ibid., at 5.
149. Review of the Functioning of the RACs. Ibid.
150. Penas, Review of the Functioning of the RACs. op. cit., supra note 20 at 592.
151. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, op. cit., supra note 20 at 5.
152. Review of the Functioning of the RACs. Ibid., at 7-8.
153. Ibid..
154. Ibid. at 7.
155. Ibid. at 8.
156. Art. 15 of the TFEU.
157. Art. 6(5) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, op. cit., supra note 11.
158. Art. 7(2) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
159. Ibid..
160. Art. 7(3) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
161. Ibid..
162. Ibid..
163. Art. 7(4) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
164. Art. 7(4) and 7 (5) of Council Decision 2004/585/EC, ibid.
165. Green Paper on the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy, COM (2001) 135 final, 20.3.2001. op. cit., supra note 68.
166. L. O'Cinnéide, 'Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy', at the workshop hosted by the Irish Institute of International and European Affairs Conference, 8 October 2009. Available at: http://www.iiea.com/.
167. S. Stevenson, MEP, Senior Vice-President of the Fisheries Committee in the European Parliament, paper on 'Democracy and the role of the European Parliament within a reformed Common Fisheries Policy' presented at the Inter-RAC Conference on "Decision-making within a reformed Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)", The Merchants' Hall, Edinburgh, Scotland, 4 November 2009. Available at: http://www.nsrac.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/ Struan-Stevenson-presentation-FINAL.doc.
168. Report on the Intermediate Evaluation of the ACFA at 73; available at: http://ec.europa.eu/ fisheries/publications/studies/acfa-evaluation-2008-en.pdf.
169. Report on the Intermediate Evaluation of the ACFA. Ibid., at 64.
170. Report on the Intermediate Evaluation of the ACFA. Ibid., at 67. One of the scenarios examined in the evaluation is to replace ACFA with a RCC Coordination Committee (RCC). The advantages and disadvantages of this proposal are enumerated as follows: RACs have a better institutional position and consequently the RCC can be expected to be more effective than ACFA; ACFA funding may become additionally available for RACs and the RCC; the number of meetings would be possibly reduced, but this is uncertain; a clearer distinction between political discussion in RCC and more technical discussion in RACs; consistency with the structure of DG Mare; focussed discussion in the ad hoc working groups. The disadvantages include: a new bureaucracy would be created which lacks the experience of the ACFA Bureau/Plenary; the dialogue among some stakeholders may disappear; the EU professional organisations will be seriously weakened; the discussion would again be based on national interests, as before 1999; representation of groups without regional affiliation (aquaculture, trade, processing) may be weakened.
171. There are a number of references to the advice of RACs not being heeded in the literature: see, for example, Penas, op. cit., supra note 20. There are also a number of examples of their success, such as the role of the North Sea RAC in providing advice on the cod recovery programme, see UK House of Lords Paper 146-I, op cit., supra note 26 at 39.
172. Proposal for a Council Decision establishing Regional Advisory Councils under the Common Fisheries Policy. COM (2003) 607 final, op. cit., supra note 22 at 3.
173. The primacy of European law over the law in the Member States has received the imprimatur of the European Court of Justice in a number of seminal cases, including: Case 26/62, Van Gend en Loos [1963] E.C.R. 1; Case 6/64, Costa v. Enel [1964] E.C.R. 585; Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft [1970] E.C.R. 01125;
174. Case 106/77, Simmenthal v. Ministero delle Finanze [1978] E.C.R. 629;
175. Case C-221/89, Factortame II [1991] E.C.R. I-3905;
176. Case C-234/04, Kapferer [2006] E.C.R. I-2585;
177. Case C-119/05, Lucchini [2007] E.C.R. I-6199. See, inter alia: M. Kumm, 'The Jurisprudence of Constitutional Conflict: Constitutional Supremacy in Europe Before and After the Constitutional Treaty' (2005) 11 European Law Journal 262-307;
178. K. Lenaerts, T. Corthaut, 'Of Birds and Hedges: The Role of Primacy in Invoking Norms of EU Law' (2006) 31 European Law Review 289-315.
179. Lisbon Treaty, European Law Review. op. cit., supra note 2.
180. Ibid..
181. Preamble of the TFEU.
182. Art. 3(1)(d) of the TFEU.
183. Art. 4(2)(d) of the TFEU.
184. Art. 102 of the Act of Accession of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, OJ L 73, March 27, 1972 (in French). Case 61/77, Commission v. Ireland [1978] E.C.R. 417 at 31.
185. Case 804/79, [1981] E.C.R. 1045. Since the expiry of the time limit in Art.102, 31 December 1978, the Court has held in a number of cases that Member States can no longer take national fishery conservation measures.
186. See, inter alia: Case 61/77, Commission v. Ireland [1978] E.C.R. 417;
187. Case 87/77, Minister for Fisheries v. Sconenberg [1978] E.C.R. 473;
188. Joined Cases 185-204/78, Officier van Justitie v. J. Van Dam en Zonen et al. [1979] E.C.R. 2923.
189. Case 22/70, Commission v. Council [1971] E.C.R. 263 at 31.
190. Cited by the European Court of Justice in Case 61/77, Commission v. Ireland [1978] E.C.R. 417 at 61.
191. The Irish Supreme Court noted the exclusive nature of this competence in Kennedy v. Attorney-General & Minister for Marine and Natural Resources [2005] I.E.S.C. 36.
192. All EU Member States had to ratify the Lisbon Treaty before it entered into force. Hungary was the first Member State to do so in 2007 and the Czech Republic was the last to ratify on 13 November 2009. Ireland was the only Member State to hold referenda. The Lisbon Treaty failed to muster sufficient public support in the first referendum in 2008 in Ireland but was successfully passed in a second in 2009 after a long and divisive campaign.
193. Arts. 38 through to 44 of the TFEU.
194. Ibid..
195. Art. 33 of the EC Treaty.
196. Arts. 38 through to 44 of the TFEU.
197. Art. 43 of the TFEU. Art. 43(3) specifically states that the Council on a proposal from the Commission shall adopt measures on the fixing and allocation of fishing opportunities.
198. Art. 37 of the EC Treaty.
199. See M. Dougan, 'The Treaty of Lisbon: Winning Hearts Not Minds' Common Market Law Review (2008) 45: 617-703 at 640.
200. Art. 43(2)(3) of the TFEU.
201. Arts. 31 and 32 of Council Regulation No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9;
202. Council Decision 2004/585/EC, op. cit., supra note 11.
203. Art. 218 of the TFEU.
204. http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/agreements/index-en.htm.
205. Churchill and Owen, op. cit., supra note 29.
206. Council Decision of 8 June 1998 on the ratification by the European Community of the Agreement for the implementing of the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the conservation and management of straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. OJ L 189, 3.07.1998, p.14. Entry into force 18.01.2004.
207. Council Decision of 25 June 1996 on acceptance by the Community of the Agreement to promote compliance with international conservation and management measures by fishing vessels on the high seas. OJ L 177, 16.07.1996, p.24. Entry into force 24.04.2003.
208. Art 5 of the TEU. An official hard copy is published in the Official Journal of the European Union at OJ C115/51, 9.05.2008. Electronic copy available at: http://eur-lex.europa .eu/JOHtml.do-uri=OJ:C:2008:115:SOM:EN:HTML.
209. Case T-37/04, The Autonomous Regions of the Azores v. Council, Judgment of 1 July 2008, para. 53;
210. Case T-417/04, Regione Autonoma Friuli-Venezia Giulia v. Commission [2007] ECR II-641, para. 62.
211. Art. 263(4) of the TFEU.
212. Arts. 258 and 259 of the TFEU.
213. Art. 48 of the TEU.
214. Art. 48(2) to (5) of the TEU.
215. Art. 48(6) of the TEU.
216. For a general discussion, see H. Hofmann, 'Legislation, Delegation and Implementation under the Lisbon Treaty: Typology Meets Reality' (2009) 15(4) European Law Journal 482-505.
217. Review of the Functioning of the RACs, COM (2008) 364 final, op. cit., supra note 20.
218. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, op. cit., supra note 23 at 10.
219. Ibid..
220. Art. 43(2)(3) of the TFEU.
221. E. Best, P. Settembri, 'Legislative Output after Enlargement: Similar Number, Shifting Nature' in: Best et al. (eds.) The Institutions of the Enlarged European Union (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2008) pp. 284-314.
222. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163, op. cit., supra note 23 at 10.
223. Ibid..
224. Arts. 202 and 211 of the EC Treaty. The procedures for the adoption of delegated and implementing legislation is set down in Arts. 290 and 291 of the TFEU.
225. See, inter alia: T. Christiansen, T. Larsson, The Role of Committees in the Policy Process of the European Union: Legislation, Implementation and Deliberation (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2007);
226. P. Craig, G. de Burca, EU Law: Text, Cases & Materials (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 2008), pp. 118-123;
227. A. Kaczorowska, European Union Law ( London; Routledge- Cavendish, 2009), pp. 199-201;
228. P. Craig, EU Administrative Law (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 99-142.
229. Case 9/56, Meroni v. High Authority; Case 41/69 Chemiefarma [1970] E.C.R. 661;
230. Case 57/72, Westzucker [1973] E.C.R. 321;
231. Case 230/78, Eridania [1979] E.C.R. 2749;
232. Joined Cases C-296/93 and C-307/93, France and Ireland v. Commission [1996] E.C.R. I-795.
233. Case 23/75, Rey Soda v. Cassa Conguaglio Zucchero [1975] E.C.R. 1279 at para. 13.
234. See Craig, EU Administrative Law, op. cit., supra note 179 at 99-142.
235. Council Decision 2006/512/EC of 17 July 2006 amending Decision 1999/468/EC laying down the procedures for the exercise of implementing powers conferred on the Commission. OJ L 2000/11, 22.7.2006. Essentially this introduced a new type of procedure for the exercise of implementing powers, the regulatory procedure with scrutiny, which allows the legislator to oppose the adoption of draft measures where it indicates that the draft exceeds the implementing powers provided for in the basic instrument, or that the draft is incompatible with the aim or the content of that instrument or fails to respect the principles of subsidiarity or proportionality
236. Art. 30 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
237. Ibid..
238. Institute for European Environmental Policy, "EU Fisheries Decision Making Guide", September 2008 (Institute for European Environmental Policy). Available at: http://www .fishsec.org/downloads/1245774155-75275.pdf.
239. Ibid. at 17.
240. Irranca-Davies, op. cit., supra note 3.
241. Arts. 290 and 291 of the TFEU.
242. Comitology Handbook, March 2009.
243. Art. 290(2)(a) of the TFEU.
244. E. Best, 'The Lisbon Treaty: A Qualified Advance for EU Decision-Making and Governance', available at: http://www.eipa.eu/files/repository/eipascope/ 20080509183728-SCOPE 2008-1-2-EdwardBest.pdf.
245. These principles are set out in Art. 2 of Council Regulation No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
246. See M. Leeuw, 'Openness in the Legislative Process in the European Union' (2007) 32 (3) European Law Review 295-318.
247. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, op. cit., supra note 23 at 10.
248. Ibid..
249. Ibid., at 11.
250. Op. cit., supra note 43.
251. See, inter alia: B. Eberlein, E. Grande, 'Beyond Delegation: Transnational Regulatory Regimes and the EU Regulatory State', (2005) 12 (1) Journal of European Public Policy, 89-112;
252. C. Knill, The Europeanisation of National Administrations: Patterns of Institutional Adjustment and Persistence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001);
253. A. Heritier et al., Differential Europe: The European Union Impact on National Policymaking (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001);
254. B. Laffan, 'From Policy Entrepreneur to Policy Manager: the Challenge Facing the European Commission' (1997) 4(3) Journal of European Public Policy 422-438.
255. Art. 3(1)(d) of the TFEU.
256. A similar point is made about law-making generally: see Hansard Society, Making the Law: Report of the Hansard Society Commission on the Legislative Process (London: Hansard Society, 1992).
257. See, inter alia, Court of Auditors, Special Report No. 7/2007 on the control, inspection and sanction systems relating to the rules on conservation of Community fisheries resources together with the Commission's replies (pursuant to Art. 248(4) second paragraph, EC) (2007/C 317/01).OJ C 317/1, 28.12.2007; Long and Curran, op. cit., supra note 29, passim.
258. Ibid..
259. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, op. cit., supra note 23.
260. See cases cited supra note 140.
261. Case 9/56, Meroni v. High Authority [1958] E.C.R. 11; Case 10/56, Meroni, [1958] ECR 53.
262. For an academic commentary on the development of the role of European Agencies in the regulatory process, see inter alia: Craig, EU Administrative Law, op. cit., supra note 179 at Chapter 5;
263. D. Geradin et al., Regulation Through Agencies in the EU: A New Paradigm of European Governance (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2005;
264. R. Dehousse, 'Regulation by Networks in the European Community: the role of European Agencies' (1997) 4(2) Journal of European Public Policy 246-261;
265. Eberlein and Grande, op. cit., supra note 199. The Agencies themselves are described at: http://europa.eu/agencies/community-agencies/.
266. Dougan, op. cit., supra note 156 at 652, who cites G. Majone, Dilemmas of European Integration: The Ambiguities and Pitfalls of Integration by Stealth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
267. Ibid..
268. Hofmann, Dilemmas of European Integration: The Ambiguities and Pitfalls of Integration by Stealth. op. cit., supra note 170 at 501.
269. European Commission, European Governance, A White Paper, COM (2001) 428 final, op. cit., supra note 63 at 24.
270. Ibid..
271. Communication from the Commission, The operating framework for the European Regulatory Agencies, COM (2002) 718 final, Brussels, 11.12.2002, at 5. Available at: http://ec .europa.eu/governance/docs/comm-agence-en.pdf.
272. Available at: http://www.europa.eu/agencies/community-agencies/.
273. Communication from the Commission, The operating framework for the European Regulatory Agencies COM (2002) 718 final, op. cit., supra note 213 at 3.
274. Craig, EU Administrative Law, op. cit., supra note 179 at 154.
275. D. Geradin, N. Petit, 'The Development of Agencies at EU and National Levels: Conceptual Analysis and Proposals for Reform' (2004) Jean Monnet Working Paper 01/04, NYU School of Law. Available at: http://centers.law.nyu.edu/ jeanmonnet/papers/04/040101.pdf.
276. Regulation (EEC) No. 337/75 of 10 February 1975 establishing a European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. OJ L 39/1, 13.2.1975; Regulation (EEC) No. 1365/75 of 26 May 1975 on the creation of a European Foundation for the improvement of living and working conditions. OJ L 139/1, 30.5.1975;
277. Regulation (EC) No. 401/2009 of 23 April 2009 on the European Environment Agency and the European Environment Information and Observation Network. OJ L 126/13, 21.5.2009;
278. Regulation (EEC) No. 1360/90 of 7 May 1990 establishing a European Training Foundation. OJ L 131/1, 23.5.1990;
279. Regulation No. 1920/2006 of 12 December 2006 on the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (recast). OJ L 376/1, 27.12.2006;
280. Regulation (EC) No. 726/2004 of 31 March 2004 laying down Community procedures for the authorisation and supervision of medicinal products for human and veterinary use and establishing a European Medicines Agency. OJ L 136/1, 30.4.2004.
281. Council Regulation (EC) No. 40/94 of 20 December 1993 on the Community trade mark. OJ L011/1, 14.01.1994;
282. Regulation (EC) No. 2062/94 of 18 July 1994 establishing a European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. OJ L 216/1, 20.08.1994;
283. Regulation (EC) No. 2100/94 of 27 July 1994 on Community plant variety rights. OJ L 227/1, 1.9.1994;
284. Regulation (EC) No. 2965/94 of 28 November 1994 setting up a Translation Centre for bodies of the European Union. OJ L 314/1, 07.12.1994;
285. Regulation (EC) No. 1035/97 of 2 June 1997 establishing a European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. OJ L 151/1, 10.6.1997.
286. Regulation (EC) No. 2667/2000 of 5 December 2000 on the European Agency for Reconstruction. OJ L 306/7, 7.12.2000;
287. Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. OJ L 31/1. 1.2.2002;
288. Regulation (EC) No. 1406/2002 of 27 June 2002 establishing a European Maritime Safety Agency European Maritime Safety Agency. OJ L 208/1, 5.8.2002;
289. Regulation (EC) No. 216/2008 of 20 February 2008 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Aviation Safety Agency, and repealing Council Directive 91/670/EEC
290. Regulation (EC) No 1592/2002 and Directive 2004/36/EC. OJ L 79/1, 19.3.2008;
291. Regulation (EC) No. 768/2005 of 26 April 2005 establishing a Community Fisheries Control Agency and amending Regulation (EC) No. 2847/93 establishing a control system applicable to the common fisheries policy. OJ L 128/1, 21.5.2005.
292. These include the Office for the Harmonization in the Internal Market, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO). The CPVO, for example, has been delegated the power to adopt legally binding decisions in relation on the registration of plant variety rights under Art 62 of Council Regulation 2100/94 of 22 July 1994 on Community plant varieties, [1994] OJ L 227/1 as subsequently amended in 1995, OJ L 258/1.
293. For example, the CFCA undertakes a limited range of tasks relating to the enforcement of fishery law in the Member States, op. cit., supra note 46.
294. Communication from the Commission, The operating framework for the European Regulatory Agencies COM (2002) 718 final, op. cit., supra note 213.
295. Craig, OJ L. op. cit., supra note 179 at 170-173.
296. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, op. cit., supra note 23 at 10.
297. Dougan, OJ L. op. cit., supra note 156.
298. See inter alia: Majone, op. cit., supra note 208, passim; by the same author ,'The Credibility Crisis of Community Regulation' (2000) 38(2) Journal of Common Market Studies 273-30;
299. E. Chiti, 'The Emergence of a Community Administration: The Case of European Agencies' (2000) 37(2) Common Market Law Review 309-343;
300. by the same author, 'Decentralisation and Integration into the Community Administrations: A New Perspective on European Agencies' (2004) 10 (4) European Law Journal 402-438;
301. S. Krapohl, 'Credible Commitment in Non-independent Regulatory Agencies: A Comparative Analysis of the European Agencies for Pharmaceuticals and Foodstuffs' (2005) 10(5) European Law Journal 518-538.
302. Several agencies, including the Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market, the CPVO and the European Aviation Safety Agency, have appeals mechanisms to deal with any complaints by third parties arising from decisions they adopt, prior to any referral to the Court of First Instance.
303. European Commission, European Governance, A White Paper, COM (2001) 428 final, op. cit., supra note 63.
304. Art. 258 of the TFEU.
305. Art. 27 of Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002 of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety, OJ L 31/1, 1.2.2002.
306. D. Curtin, 'Delegation to EU Non-Majoritarian Agencies and Emerging Practices of Public Accountability' in: D. Geradin et al., op. cit., supra note 207 at 88-120 (especially at 113).
307. EASA may be considered to be a quasi-regulatory agency which has elaborate rule-making procedures and a major input into the drafting of complex implementing regulations concerning air safety before their formal approval by the Commission pursuant to Regulation (EC) No. 1592/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 July 2002 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Aviation Safety Agency [2002] OJ L 240/1. Although the Commission has the final say on the adoption of these regulations, the recommendation of EASA carries considerable weight on the outcome of the decision-making process. Indeed, in most instances, it appears that the Commission will simply adopt the recommendation from EASA without much deliberation or scrutiny. See P. Craig, EU Administrative Law , op. cit., supra note 179 at 156.
308. Regulation (EC) No. 216/2008 of 20 February 2008 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Aviation Safety Agency, and repealing Council Directive 91/670/EEC, Regulation (EC) No. 1592/2002 and Directive 2004/36/EC, OJ L 79/1, 19.3.2008.
309. These are the objectives of the CFP as set out in Art. 2(2) of Council Regulation No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
310. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, op. cit., supra note 23 at 5.
311. Ibid..
312. See Inter-RAC Conference on Decision-Making in the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, Merchants Hall, Edinburgh, 3-4 November 2009. Available at: www.nsrac.org/ wp-content/. . ./11/Inter-RAC-CFP-Edinburgh-Report.pdf.
313. Green Paper, Reform of the CFP, COM (2009) 163 final, op. cit., supra note 23 at 7.
314. H. Siemers, DG MARE, 'Integration of the Common Fisheries Policy into Wider Maritime Policy', in: Inter-RAC Conference on Decision-Making in the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, Merchants Hall, Edinburgh, 3-4 November 2009; op. cit., supra note 236.
315. On the issue of governance, see T. Treves, 'Principles and Objectives of the Legal Regime Governing Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction', in: E. Molenaar, A. Oude Elferink (eds.), The International Legal Regime of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction: Current and Future Developments (The Hague: Brill Academic Publishers, 2010) 7-25 at 7.
316. E. Ostrom, R. Gardner, J. Walker, Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources, op. cit., supra note 28.
317. Art. 31(1) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2371/2002, op. cit., supra note 9.
318. UK House of Lords Paper 146-I, para. 135, op. cit., supra note 26.