메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 17, Issue 9, 2010, Pages 861-870

Do anti-angiogenic or angiogenic factors contribute to the protection of birth weight at high altitude afforded by andean ancestry?

Author keywords

Fetal growth restriction; high altitude adaptation; placenta growth factor; pregnancy; soluble fms like tyrosine kinase 1

Indexed keywords

PLACENTAL GROWTH FACTOR; VASCULOTROPIN RECEPTOR 1;

EID: 77955694210     PISSN: 19337191     EISSN: 19337205     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1933719110372418     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (22)

References (46)
  • 2
    • 0037154999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trophoblast functions, angiogenesis and remodeling of the maternal vasculature in the placenta
    • Cross JC, Hemberger M., Lu Y., et al. Trophoblast functions, angiogenesis and remodeling of the maternal vasculature in the placenta. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2002 ; 187 (1-2). 207-212.
    • (2002) Mol Cell Endocrinol , vol.187 , Issue.1-2 , pp. 207-212
    • Cross, J.C.1    Hemberger, M.2    Lu, Y.3
  • 3
    • 41549137355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Placental growth factor is a potent vasodilator of rat and human resistance arteries
    • Osol G., Celia G., Gokina N., et al. Placental growth factor is a potent vasodilator of rat and human resistance arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2008 ; 294 (3). H1381 - H1387.
    • (2008) Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol , vol.294 , Issue.3
    • Osol, G.1    Celia, G.2    Gokina, N.3
  • 6
    • 54049086553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lower uterine artery blood flow and higher endothelin relative to nitric oxide metabolite levels are associated with reductions in birth weight at high altitude
    • Julian CG, Galan HL, Wilson MJ, et al. Lower uterine artery blood flow and higher endothelin relative to nitric oxide metabolite levels are associated with reductions in birth weight at high altitude. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008 ; 295 (3). R906 - R915.
    • (2008) Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. , vol.295 , Issue.3
    • Julian, C.G.1    Galan, H.L.2    Wilson, M.J.3
  • 8
    • 0038309519 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Intrauterine growth restriction, preeclampsia, and intrauterine mortality at high altitude in Bolivia
    • Keyes LE, Armaza JF, Niermeyer S., Vargas E., Young DA, Moore LG Intrauterine growth restriction, preeclampsia, and intrauterine mortality at high altitude in Bolivia. Pediatr Res. 2003 ; 54 (1). 20-25.
    • (2003) Pediatr Res , vol.54 , Issue.1 , pp. 20-25
    • Keyes, L.E.1    Armaza, J.F.2    Niermeyer, S.3    Vargas, E.4    Young, D.A.5    Moore, L.G.6
  • 10
    • 0033032309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Altered blood pressure course during normal pregnancy and increased preeclampsia at high altitude (3100 m) in Colorado
    • Palmer SK, Moore LG, Young D., Cregger B., Berman JC, Zamudio S. Altered blood pressure course during normal pregnancy and increased preeclampsia at high altitude (3100 m) in Colorado. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999 ; 180 (5). 1161-1168.
    • (1999) Am J Obstet Gynecol , vol.180 , Issue.5 , pp. 1161-1168
    • Palmer, S.K.1    Moore, L.G.2    Young, D.3    Cregger, B.4    Berman, J.C.5    Zamudio, S.6
  • 11
    • 0041629292 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fetal growth restriction and maternal oxygen transport during high altitude pregnancy
    • Moore LG Fetal growth restriction and maternal oxygen transport during high altitude pregnancy. High Alt Med Biol. 2003 ; 4 (2). 141-156.
    • (2003) High Alt Med Biol , vol.4 , Issue.2 , pp. 141-156
    • Moore, L.G.1
  • 12
    • 1942454876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal adaptation to high-altitude pregnancy: An experiment of nature - A review
    • Moore LG, Shriver M., Bemis L., et al. Maternal adaptation to high-altitude pregnancy: an experiment of nature-a review. Placenta. 2004 ; 25 (suppl A). S60 - S71.
    • (2004) Placenta , vol.25 , Issue.A
    • Moore, L.G.1    Shriver, M.2    Bemis, L.3
  • 13
    • 34548455330 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Greater uterine artery blood flow during pregnancy in multigenerational (Andean) than shorter-term (European) high-altitude residents
    • Wilson MJ, Lopez M., Vargas M., et al. Greater uterine artery blood flow during pregnancy in multigenerational (Andean) than shorter-term (European) high-altitude residents. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007 ; 293 (3). R1313 - R1324.
    • (2007) Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol , vol.293 , Issue.3
    • Wilson, M.J.1    Lopez, M.2    Vargas, M.3
  • 14
    • 34447278106 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal oxygen delivery is not related to altitude- and ancestry-associated differences in human fetal growth
    • Zamudio S., Postigo L., Illsley NP, et al. Maternal oxygen delivery is not related to altitude- and ancestry-associated differences in human fetal growth. J Physiol. 2007 ; 582 (pt 2). 883-895.
    • (2007) J Physiol , vol.582 , Issue.2 , pp. 883-895
    • Zamudio, S.1    Postigo, L.2    Illsley, N.P.3
  • 15
    • 66149133035 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Augmented uterine artery blood flow and oxygen delivery protect Andeans from altitude-associated reductions in fetal growth
    • Julian CG, Wilson MJ, Lopez M., et al. Augmented uterine artery blood flow and oxygen delivery protect Andeans from altitude-associated reductions in fetal growth. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009 ; 296 (5). R1564-1575.
    • (2009) Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. , vol.296 , Issue.5 , pp. 1564-1575
    • Julian, C.G.1    Wilson, M.J.2    Lopez, M.3
  • 16
    • 18944368895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Isolated placental vessel response to vascular endothelial growth factor and placenta growth factor in normal and growth-restricted pregnancy
    • Szukiewicz D., Szewczyk G., Watroba M., Kurowska E., Maslinski S. Isolated placental vessel response to vascular endothelial growth factor and placenta growth factor in normal and growth-restricted pregnancy. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2005 ; 59 (2). 102-107.
    • (2005) Gynecol Obstet Invest , vol.59 , Issue.2 , pp. 102-107
    • Szukiewicz, D.1    Szewczyk, G.2    Watroba, M.3    Kurowska, E.4    Maslinski, S.5
  • 17
    • 77955693720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mechanism of vasodilation by placental growth factor (PIGF) in the uterine circulation
    • Cooper B. Mechanism of vasodilation by placental growth factor (PIGF) in the uterine circulation. J Soc Gynecol Invest. 2005 ; 12 ( 2 ).
    • (2005) J Soc Gynecol Invest , vol.12 , Issue.2
    • Cooper, B.1
  • 18
    • 0037295704 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Placental trophoblast and endothelial cells as target of maternal immune response
    • Bulla R., Bossi F., Radillo O., de Seta F., Tedesco F. Placental trophoblast and endothelial cells as target of maternal immune response. Autoimmunity. 2003 ; 36 (1). 11-18.
    • (2003) Autoimmunity , vol.36 , Issue.1 , pp. 11-18
    • Bulla, R.1    Bossi, F.2    Radillo, O.3    De Seta, F.4    Tedesco, F.5
  • 19
    • 0035208903 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lopez-Jaramillo P. Elevated C-reactive protein and pro-inflammatory cytokines in Andean women with pre-eclampsia
    • Teran E., Escudero C., Moya W., Flores M., Vallance P., Lopez-Jaramillo P. Elevated C-reactive protein and pro-inflammatory cytokines in Andean women with pre-eclampsia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2001 ; 75 (3). 243-249.
    • (2001) Int J Gynaecol Obstet , vol.75 , Issue.3 , pp. 243-249
    • Teran, E.1    Escudero, C.2    Moya, W.3    Flores, M.4    Vallance, P.5
  • 20
    • 9244257290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cytotrophoblasts up-regulate soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 expression under reduced oxygen: An implication for the placental vascular development and the pathophysiology of preeclampsia
    • Nagamatsu T., Fujii T., Kusumi M., et al. Cytotrophoblasts up-regulate soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 expression under reduced oxygen: an implication for the placental vascular development and the pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Endocrinology. 2004 ; 145 (11). 4838-4845.
    • (2004) Endocrinology , vol.145 , Issue.11 , pp. 4838-4845
    • Nagamatsu, T.1    Fujii, T.2    Kusumi, M.3
  • 21
    • 10744227199 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia
    • Levine RJ, Maynard SE, Qian C., et al. Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia. N Engl J Med. 2004 ; 350 (7). 672-683.
    • (2004) N Engl J Med , vol.350 , Issue.7 , pp. 672-683
    • Levine, R.J.1    Maynard, S.E.2    Qian, C.3
  • 22
    • 37849021866 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A longitudinal study of angiogenic (placental growth factor) and anti-angiogenic (soluble endoglin and soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1) factors in normal pregnancy and patients destined to develop preeclampsia and deliver a small for gestational age neonate
    • Romero R., Nien JK, Espinoza J., et al. A longitudinal study of angiogenic (placental growth factor) and anti-angiogenic (soluble endoglin and soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1) factors in normal pregnancy and patients destined to develop preeclampsia and deliver a small for gestational age neonate. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2008 ; 21 (1). 9-23.
    • (2008) J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med , vol.21 , Issue.1 , pp. 9-23
    • Romero, R.1    Nien, J.K.2    Espinoza, J.3
  • 23
    • 34249874048 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Circulating angiogenic factors in early pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, spontaneous preterm birth, and stillbirth
    • Smith GC, Crossley JA, Aitken DA, et al. Circulating angiogenic factors in early pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, spontaneous preterm birth, and stillbirth. Obstet Gynecol. 2007 ; 109 (6). 1316-1324.
    • (2007) Obstet Gynecol , vol.109 , Issue.6 , pp. 1316-1324
    • Smith, G.C.1    Crossley, J.A.2    Aitken, D.A.3
  • 24
    • 0012270024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regulation of placental vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placenta growth factor (PIGF) and soluble Flt-1 by oxygen - A review
    • Ahmed A., Dunk C., Ahmad S., Khaliq A. Regulation of placental vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placenta growth factor (PIGF) and soluble Flt-1 by oxygen-a review. Placenta. 2000 ; 21 (suppl A). S16 - S24.
    • (2000) Placenta , vol.21 , Issue.A
    • Ahmed, A.1    Dunk, C.2    Ahmad, S.3    Khaliq, A.4
  • 25
    • 0036972257 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vascular endothelial growth factor and placental growth factor release in cultured trophoblast cells under different oxygen tensions
    • Lash GE, Taylor CM, Trew AJ, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor and placental growth factor release in cultured trophoblast cells under different oxygen tensions. Growth Factors. 2002 ; 20 (4). 189-196.
    • (2002) Growth Factors , vol.20 , Issue.4 , pp. 189-196
    • Lash, G.E.1    Taylor, C.M.2    Trew, A.J.3
  • 26
    • 14844285310 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The genomic distribution of population substructure in four populations using 8,525 autosomal SNPs
    • Shriver MD, Kennedy GC, Parra EJ, et al. The genomic distribution of population substructure in four populations using 8,525 autosomal SNPs. Hum Genomics. 2004 ; 1 (4). 274-286.
    • (2004) Hum Genomics , vol.1 , Issue.4 , pp. 274-286
    • Shriver, M.D.1    Kennedy, G.C.2    Parra, E.J.3
  • 27
    • 33846192815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contrasting effects of chronic hypoxia and nitric oxide synthase inhibition on circulating angiogenic factors in a rat model of growth restriction
    • Bahtiyar MO, Buhimschi C., Ravishankar V., et al. Contrasting effects of chronic hypoxia and nitric oxide synthase inhibition on circulating angiogenic factors in a rat model of growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007 ; 196 (1). 72.e1-72.e6.
    • (2007) Am J Obstet Gynecol. , vol.196 , Issue.1
    • Bahtiyar, M.O.1    Buhimschi, C.2    Ravishankar, V.3
  • 28
    • 1842532440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prospective analysis of placenta growth factor (PlGF) concentrations in the plasma of women with normal pregnancy and pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia
    • Krauss T., Pauer HU, Augustin HG Prospective analysis of placenta growth factor (PlGF) concentrations in the plasma of women with normal pregnancy and pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2004 ; 23 (1). 101-111.
    • (2004) Hypertens Pregnancy , vol.23 , Issue.1 , pp. 101-111
    • Krauss, T.1    Pauer, H.U.2    Augustin, H.G.3
  • 29
    • 0041629286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The placenta at high altitude
    • Zamudio S. The placenta at high altitude. High Alt Med Biol. 2003 ; 4 (2). 171-191.
    • (2003) High Alt Med Biol , vol.4 , Issue.2 , pp. 171-191
    • Zamudio, S.1
  • 30
    • 34247353769 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Angiogenic growth factor levels in maternal and fetal blood: Correlation with Doppler ultrasound parameters in pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction
    • Schlembach D., Wallner W., Sengenberger R., et al. Angiogenic growth factor levels in maternal and fetal blood: correlation with Doppler ultrasound parameters in pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2007 ; 29 (4). 407-413.
    • (2007) Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol , vol.29 , Issue.4 , pp. 407-413
    • Schlembach, D.1    Wallner, W.2    Sengenberger, R.3
  • 31
    • 33751021463 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal serum concentration of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 and vascular endothelial growth factor in women with abnormal uterine artery Doppler and in those with fetal growth restriction
    • Savvidou MD, Yu CK, Harland LC, Hingorani AD, Nicolaides KH Maternal serum concentration of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 and vascular endothelial growth factor in women with abnormal uterine artery Doppler and in those with fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 ; 195 (6). 1668-1673.
    • (2006) Am J Obstet Gynecol , vol.195 , Issue.6 , pp. 1668-1673
    • Savvidou, M.D.1    Yu, C.K.2    Harland, L.C.3    Hingorani, A.D.4    Nicolaides, K.H.5
  • 32
    • 37849027064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The maternal plasma soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 concentration is elevated in SGA and the magnitude of the increase relates to Doppler abnormalities in the maternal and fetal circulation
    • Chaiworapongsa T., Espinoza J., Gotsch F., et al. The maternal plasma soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 concentration is elevated in SGA and the magnitude of the increase relates to Doppler abnormalities in the maternal and fetal circulation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2008 ; 21 (1). 25-40.
    • (2008) J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med , vol.21 , Issue.1 , pp. 25-40
    • Chaiworapongsa, T.1    Espinoza, J.2    Gotsch, F.3
  • 33
    • 34047232484 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Predictive value of maternal angiogenic factors in second trimester pregnancies with abnormal uterine perfusion
    • Stepan H., Unversucht A., Wessel N., Faber R. Predictive value of maternal angiogenic factors in second trimester pregnancies with abnormal uterine perfusion. Hypertension. 2007 ; 49 (4). 818-824.
    • (2007) Hypertension , vol.49 , Issue.4 , pp. 818-824
    • Stepan, H.1    Unversucht, A.2    Wessel, N.3    Faber, R.4
  • 34
    • 34447310236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 (VEGFR-1/Flt-1): A dual regulator for angiogenesis
    • discussion 231
    • Shibuya M. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 (VEGFR-1/Flt-1): a dual regulator for angiogenesis. Angiogenesis. 2006 ; 9 (4). 225-230 ; discussion 231.
    • (2006) Angiogenesis , vol.9 , Issue.4 , pp. 225-230
    • Shibuya, M.1
  • 35
    • 66149086950 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Positive and negative modulation of angiogenesis by VEGFR1 ligands
    • Cao Y. Positive and negative modulation of angiogenesis by VEGFR1 ligands. Sci Signal. 2009 ; 2 (59). re1.
    • (2009) Sci Signal , vol.2 , Issue.59 , pp. 1
    • Cao, Y.1
  • 36
    • 33749316052 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Increased expression of sFlt-1 in in vivo and in vitro models of human placental hypoxia is mediated by HIF-1
    • Nevo O., Soleymanlou N., Wu Y., et al. Increased expression of sFlt-1 in in vivo and in vitro models of human placental hypoxia is mediated by HIF-1. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006 ; 291 (4). R1085 - R1093.
    • (2006) Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. , vol.291 , Issue.4
    • Nevo, O.1    Soleymanlou, N.2    Wu, Y.3
  • 37
    • 13844272191 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hypoxia-induced increase in soluble Flt-1 production correlates with enhanced oxidative stress in trophoblast cells from the human placenta
    • Li H., Gu B., Zhang Y., Lewis DF, Wang Y. Hypoxia-induced increase in soluble Flt-1 production correlates with enhanced oxidative stress in trophoblast cells from the human placenta. Placenta. 2005 ; 26 (2-3). 210-217.
    • (2005) Placenta , vol.26 , Issue.2-3 , pp. 210-217
    • Li, H.1    Gu, B.2    Zhang, Y.3    Lewis, D.F.4    Wang, Y.5
  • 38
    • 21444452423 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Extra-placental expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, (Flt-1) and soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1), by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in normotensive and preeclamptic pregnant women
    • Rajakumar A., Michael HM, Rajakumar PA, et al. Extra-placental expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, (Flt-1) and soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1), by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in normotensive and preeclamptic pregnant women. Placenta. 2005 ; 26 (7). 563-573.
    • (2005) Placenta , vol.26 , Issue.7 , pp. 563-573
    • Rajakumar, A.1    Michael, H.M.2    Rajakumar, P.A.3
  • 39
    • 20944445640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Modulation of immune response by the acute and chronic exposure to high altitude
    • Facco M., Zilli C., Siviero M., et al. Modulation of immune response by the acute and chronic exposure to high altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005 ; 37 (5). 768-774.
    • (2005) Med Sci Sports Exerc , vol.37 , Issue.5 , pp. 768-774
    • Facco, M.1    Zilli, C.2    Siviero, M.3
  • 40
    • 34250858133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sequential changes in antiangiogenic factors in early pregnancy and risk of developing preeclampsia
    • Rana S., Karumanchi SA, Levine RJ, et al. Sequential changes in antiangiogenic factors in early pregnancy and risk of developing preeclampsia. Hypertension. 2007 ; 50 (1). 137-142.
    • (2007) Hypertension , vol.50 , Issue.1 , pp. 137-142
    • Rana, S.1    Karumanchi, S.A.2    Levine, R.J.3
  • 41
    • 7244238090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Elevated placental soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 inhibits angiogenesis in preeclampsia
    • Ahmad S., Ahmed A. Elevated placental soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 inhibits angiogenesis in preeclampsia. Circ Res. 2004 ; 95 (9). 884-891.
    • (2004) Circ Res , vol.95 , Issue.9 , pp. 884-891
    • Ahmad, S.1    Ahmed, A.2
  • 42
    • 33846267013 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Angiogenic growth factors in maternal and fetal serum in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction
    • Lond
    • Wallner W., Sengenberger R., Strick R., et al. Angiogenic growth factors in maternal and fetal serum in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction. Clin Sci (Lond). 2007 ; 112 (1). 51-57.
    • (2007) Clin Sci , vol.112 , Issue.1 , pp. 51-57
    • Wallner, W.1    Sengenberger, R.2    Strick, R.3
  • 43
    • 33748421660 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Soluble endoglin and other circulating antiangiogenic factors in preeclampsia
    • Levine RJ, Lam C., Qian C., et al. Soluble endoglin and other circulating antiangiogenic factors in preeclampsia. N Engl J Med. 2006 ; 355 (10). 992-1005.
    • (2006) N Engl J Med , vol.355 , Issue.10 , pp. 992-1005
    • Levine, R.J.1    Lam, C.2    Qian, C.3
  • 44
    • 0028173273 scopus 로고
    • Increased concentrations of cytokines interleukin-6 and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in plasma of women with preeclampsia: A mechanism for endothelial dysfunction
    • Greer IA, Lyall F., Perera T., Boswell F., Macara LM Increased concentrations of cytokines interleukin-6 and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in plasma of women with preeclampsia: a mechanism for endothelial dysfunction ? Obstet Gynecol. 1994 ; 84 (6). 937-940.
    • (1994) Obstet Gynecol , vol.84 , Issue.6 , pp. 937-940
    • Greer, I.A.1    Lyall, F.2    Perera, T.3    Boswell, F.4    MacAra, L.M.5
  • 45
    • 33745698366 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Evaluation of maternal and umbilical serum TNFalpha levels in preeclamptic pregnancies in the intrauterine normal and growth-restricted fetus
    • Laskowska M., Leszczynska-Gorzelak B., Laskowska K., Oleszczuk J. Evaluation of maternal and umbilical serum TNFalpha levels in preeclamptic pregnancies in the intrauterine normal and growth-restricted fetus. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2006 ; 19 (6). 347-351.
    • (2006) J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med , vol.19 , Issue.6 , pp. 347-351
    • Laskowska, M.1    Leszczynska-Gorzelak, B.2    Laskowska, K.3    Oleszczuk, J.4


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.