To block or not to block: European approaches to content regulation, and implications for freedom of expression

Computer Law and Security Review

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 260-272

  Akdeniz, Yaman ^a  

^a ISTANBUL BILGI UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Access blocking; Censorship; Filters; Freedom of expression; Hotlines; Illegal and harmful content; Internet content regulation; Notice and take down

Indexed keywords

ACCESS BLOCKING; CENSORSHIP; FILTERS; FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION; HOTLINES; ILLEGAL AND HARMFUL CONTENT; INTERNET CONTENT REGULATION; NOTICE AND TAKE DOWN;

CRIME; LAWS AND LEGISLATION; WORLD WIDE WEB;

INTERNET;

EID: 77955598996     PISSN: 02673649     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.clsr.2010.03.004     Document Type: Article

References (174)

1. His recent publications include Internet Child Pornography and the Law: National and International Responses (London: Ashgate, 2008: ISBN: 0 7546 2297 5)
2. Racism on the Internet, Council of Europe Publishing, 2010 (ISBN: 978-92-871-6634-0).
3. For further information about his work see 〈http://cyberlaw.org.uk/ about/〉.
4. See generally Travis, A., Bound and Gagged: A Secret History of Obscenity in Britain, Profile Books, 2000.
5. See generally Sutherland, J., Offensive Literature: Decensorship in Britain 1960-1982, Barnes and Noble Books, 1982.
6. See generally Smith, S.J., Children, Cinema & Censorship, I.B. Tauris, 2005.
7. See generally Aldgate, A., and Robertson, J.C., Censorship in Theatre and Cinema, Edinburgh University Press, 2005.
8. See for example Egan, K., Trash or Treasure?: Censorship and the Changing Meanings of the Video Nasties, Manchester University Press, 2007.
9. Cohen, S., Folk Devils and Moral Panics: Creation of Mods and Rockers, Routledge: 30th Anniversary edition, 2002;
10. Jenkins, P., Intimate Enemies: Moral Panics in Contemporary Great Britain, Aldine De Gruyter, 1992.
11. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee described computer pornography as a new horror in 1994: House of Commons, Home Affairs Committee: First Report on Computer Pornography, (London: HMSO), 1994 p. V, para. 1. 0267-3649/$ e see front matter 2010
12. Dr. Yaman Akdeniz. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.clsr.2010.03.004 9
13. For a detailed assessment of legal issues surrounding child pornography see Akdeniz, Y., Internet Child Pornography and the Law: National and International Responses, Ashgate, 2008.
14. For a detailed assessment of legal issues surrounding racist content and hate speech on the Internet see Akdeniz, Y., Racism on the Internet, Council of Europe Publishing, (forthcoming in 2009);
15. Akdeniz, Y., "Introduction," in Legal Instruments for Combating Racism on the Internet, Council of Europe Publishing, Human Rights and Democracy Series, 2009, pp 7-37.
16. See generally Weimann, G., Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenges (Washington: US Institute of Peace, 2006).
17. Harm is a criterion which depends upon cultural differences and this is accepted within the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights.
18. See for example Handyside v UK, App. no. no. 5493/72, Ser A vol.24, (1976) 1 EHRR 737.
19. Nevertheless, the availability of harmful Internet content is a politically sensitive area and a cause for concern for European regulators.
20. Handyside v. UK (1976), App. No. 5493/72, Ser A vol. 24;
21. Castells v. Spain (1992), App. No. 11798/85, Ser. A vol. 236.
22. Note also Lingens v. Austria, judgment of 8 July 1986, Series A, No. 103.
23. Rights of the Child: Report submitted by Mr. Juan Miguel Petit, Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, E/CN.4/2005/78, 23 December, 2004.
24. Note also the Addendum to this report: E/CN.4/2005/78/Add.3, 8 March, 2005.
25. Note further Akdeniz, Y., Internet Child Pornography and the Law: National and International Responses, 2008, Ashgate.
26. Akdeniz, Y., Racism on the Internet, Council of Europe Publishing, 2010 (ISBN 978-92-871-6634-0);
27. and Akdeniz, Y., "Governing Racist Content on the Internet: National and Inter national Responses," (2007) University of New Brunswick Law Journal (Canada), Vol. 56, Spring, 103-161.
28. Note articles 5-7 of the Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (CETS No. 196), which came into force in June 2007.
29. Publications such as Mujahideen Explosive Handbook and the Encyclopaedia of the Afghan Jihad are examples of some of the publications disseminated and distributed through the Internet.
30. Note "Terror law vague, accused to argue", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 30 August 2006
31. and "Abu Hamza trial: Islamic cleric had terror handbook, court told", The Guardian, London, 12 January 2006.
32. The Daily. Telegraph, "Alleged Holocaust denier allowed bail," 29 October, 2008;
33. BBC News, "Holocaust key to extradition case," 03 October, 2008, at 〈http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7648980. stm〉.
34. The Times, "Holocaust denier Fredrick Toben wins German extradition fight," 20 November, 2008.
35. Note the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (ETS No. 185)
36. and the Additional Protocol Concerning the Criminal-isation of Acts of a Racist and Xenophobic Nature Committed Through Computer Systems (ETS No. 189).
37. European Commission Communication on Illegal and Harmful Content on the Internet (1996), p, 10.
38. Action Plan on promoting safer use of the Internet by combating illegal and harmful content on global networks, December 1998.
39. See Handyside v UK, App. no. 5493/72, Ser A vol.24, (1976) 1 EHRR 737.
40. Ibid.
41. Castells v. Spain, App. no.11798/85, Ser. A vol.236, (1992) 14 EHRR 445.
42. Council Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA of 22 December 2003 on combating the sexual exploitation of children and child pornography (see OJ L 013 20.01.2004, p. 0044-0048), at 〈http://register. consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/ 03/st10/st10748en03.pdf〉.
43. Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA of 24 February 2005 on attacks against information systems, at 〈http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/ en/oj/2005/l-069/l- 06920050316en00670071.pdf.
44. This issue will be discussed later in the book.
45. Ibid., section 1(d).
46. Council of the European Union, Revised Action Plan on Terrorism, 10043/06, Brussels, 31 May, 2006.
47. Note the Communication from the European Commission to the European Parliament and the Council concerning Terrorist recruitment: addressing the factors contributing to violent radi-calisation, Brussels, 21.9.2005, COM(2005) 313 final.
48. European Commission Staff Working Document, Accompa nying document to the proposal for a Council Framework Deci sion amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combating terrorism: Impact Assessment, 14960/07 ADD1, Brussels, 13 November, 2007, para 4.2, pp. 29\30.
49. Ibid., European Commission Staff Working Document, Accompa nying document to the proposal for a Council Framework Deci sion amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combating terrorism: Impact Assessment, 14960/07 ADD1, Brussels, 13 November, 2007, para 4.2, pp. 29\30.
50. Accompanying Document to the Proposal for A Council Framework Decision Amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on Combating Terrorism: Impact Assessment 2007 29-30 Ibid.
51. See ibid.
52. See further Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the Committee of the Regions "Towards a general policy on the fight against cyber crime" of 22 May, 2007 e COM(2007) 267.
53. Ibid. Towards a general policy on the fight against cyber crime, p. 41.
54. See further European Commission Staff Working Document, section 5.2, pp. 41-42.
55. Ibid., European Commission Staff Working Document, p. 29.
56. Ibid, p. 42-45.
57. Council of the European Union, document no. 13930/06 RESTREINT UE, 13930/06, EXT 2, ENFOPOL 169, Brussels, 10 November, 2008
58. Conclusions of the Kick-off conference "Check the Web" e Berlin, 26-27 September 2006: This is a partially declassified document following a request to access the docu ment made by Yaman Akdeniz.
59. The Commission, however, proposed to criminalize the public provocation to commit terrorist offences, recruitment for terrorism and training for terrorism by amending the Framework Decision on combating terrorism. It is expected that the amend ments will take place during 2008.
60. See Proposal for a Council Framework Decision amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combating terrorism, 2007/0236 (CNS), COM(2007) 650 final, Brussels, 6 November, 2007, at 〈http://ec.europa.eu/commission-barroso/ frattini/archive/COM(2007)650%20EN.pdf.
61. Proposal for a Council Framework Decision on combating the sexual abuse, sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, repealing Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA, para graph 12 and draft Article 18 entitled Blocking access to websites containing child pornography.
62. Commission Staff Working Document, Accompanying docu ment to the proposal for a Council Framework Decision on combating the sexual abuse, sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, repealing Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA, Impact assessment, 8150/09 ADD 1, Brussels, 30 March, 2009, p 30.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. National Journal's Technology Daily, "Ban On Neo-Nazi Web Content In German State; Upheld," 22 December, 2004.
66. See US Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Report on Global Anti-Semitism, January 2005, at 〈http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258. htm〉.
67. Note also Combating racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and comprehensive implementation of and follow-up to the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action Note by the UN Secretary-General, A/59/330, 4 October, 2004.
68. Section 86, German Criminal Code.
69. Jugendschutz.Net, 'Right-wing Extremism on the Internet' e successful strategies against Online-Hate, 2004 Annual Report, at 〈http://www.inach. net/content/jgs-annual-report2004.pdf〉.
70. Jugendschutz.net Annual Report 2007, Right-wing extremism on the Internet, 15 June, 2008.
71. Jugendschutz.Net report, Cyber Hate 2008: Right-Wing Extremism Online e Targeting teenagers with stylish websites: Trends and Counter-Strategies, 2009, at 〈http://www.jugendschutz.net/pdf/report-cyberhate-2008.pdf〉.
72. IWF/BT Project CleanFeed, at 〈http://www.iwf.org.uk/media/news. archive-2004.39.htm〉.
73. See generally Child Abuse Images URL database at 〈http://www.iwf. org.uk/public/page.148.htm〉.
74. See further the IWF discussion paper, Commercialising the CAI URL Database, June 2004, at 〈http://www.iwf.org.uk/corporate/page.94.176. htm〉
75. and Addendum to the discussion paper at 〈http://www.iwf.org.uk/ corporate/page.94.177.htm〉.
76. Note further Recommendations from the Board and FC Working Group on Commercialising the CAI Database, February 2005, at 〈http://www.iwf.org.uk/ corporate/page.128.277.htm〉
77. as well as the revised recommen dations of May 2005, at 〈http://www.iwf.org.uk/corporate/page.141.304.htm〉. "Porn blocks," The Evening Chronicle, 07 February, 2006.
78. Richardson, T., "ISPA seeks analysis of BT's 'Cleanfeed' stats," The Register, 21 July, 2004, at 〈http://www.theregister.co.uk/ 2004/07/21/ispa-bt-cleanfeed/〉.
79. See further Richardson, T., "BT blocks 230k attempts to access child porn," The Register, 20 July, 2004, at 〈http://www.theregister.co.uk/ 2004/07/20/bt-internet-block/〉.
80. Child Abuse (Internet), House of Commons Hansard Debates for 30 April, 2007.
81. Note further Child Pornography, House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 07 November, 2006;
82. Internet Service Providers, House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 25 October, 2006.
83. Child Abuse (Internet), House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 15 May, 2006.
84. Ibid.
85. The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 (Commence ment No. 4 and Saving Provision) Order 2008 No. 2993 (C. 128).
86. See further Akdeniz, Y., "Assessing the Ministry of Justice Guidelines on Extreme Pornography," 30 November, 2008, at 〈http://cyberlaw.org.uk/2008/11/30/assessing-the-ministry-of-justice- guidelines-on-extreme-pornography/〉.
87. The Observer, "Wikipedia censorship highlights a lingering sting in the tail," 14 December, 2008, at 〈http://www.guardian.co.uk/ technology/2008/dec/14/wikipedia-censorship-scorpions-virgin-killer〉.
88. Wikimedia Foundation, "Censorship in the United Kingdom disenfranchises tens of thousands of Wikipedia editors," 07 December, 2008, at 〈http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Press-releases/Censorship-of-WP- in-the-UK-Dec-2008〉.
89. See further Wikinews, "Wikimedia, IWF respond to block of Wikipedia over child pornography allegations," 08 December, 2008, at 〈http://en. wikinews.org/wiki/Wikimedia,-IWF-respond-to-block-of- Wikipedia-over-child- pornography-allegations〉.
90. See http://www.archive.org/
91. The Register, "IWF confirms Wayback Machine porn black listing," 14 January, 2009, at 〈http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/01/ 14/iwf-details-archive-blacklisting/〉.
92. Wikileaks, "797 domains on Finnish Internet censorship list, including censorship critic, 2008," 05 January, 2009, at 〈http://www.wikileaks.com/wiki/797-domains-on-Finnish-Internet- censorship-list%2C-including-censorship-critic%2C-2008〉.
93. Wikileaks, "Denmark: 3863 sites on censorship list," February, 2008, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Denmark:-3863-sites-on- censorship-list%2C-Feb-2008〉.
94. Wikileaks, "Italian secret internet censorship list, 287 site subset, 21 June, 2009, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Italian-secret- internet-censorship-list%2C-287-site-subset%2C-21-Jun-2009〉.
95. Wikileaks, "China: censorship keywords, policies and black lists for leading search engine Baidu, 2006-2009," 02 May, 2009, at 〈http://www.wikileaks.com/wiki/China:-censorship-keywords% 2C-policies-and-blacklists-for-leading-search-engine-Baidu% 2C-2006-2009〉.
96. Wikileaks, "Thailand official MICT censorship list," 20 December, 2008, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Thailand-official- MICT-censorship-list%2C-20-Dec-2008〉.
97. Wikileaks, "Leaked Australian blacklist reveals banned sites," 19 March, 2009, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Leaked-Australian- blacklist-reveals-banned-sites〉.
98. Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 20on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market, Official Journal of the European Communities, v. 43, OJ L 178 17 July, 20p.1.
99. Note also Common Position (EC) No 22/20of 28 February 20adopted by the Council, acting in accordance with the procedure referred to in Article 251 of the Treaty establishing the European Community, with a view to adopting a Directive on electronic commerce, Official Journal C 128, 08/05/20p. 0032-0050.
100. Ibid.
101. Ibid, para. 46.
102. Ibid. See Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee e "First report on the application of Directive 2000/31/EC on elec tronic commerce), COM(2003) 702 final, Brussels, 21 November, 2003, at 〈http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/ com/rpt/2003/com2003- 0702en01.pdf〉, section 4.7.Out of those Member States which have transposed the Directive, only Finland has included a legal provision
103. setting out a notice and take down procedure concerning copyright infringements only: This information has been taken from the above mentioned Commission Report: COM(2003) 702 final.
104. Ibid, para. 47.
105. Article 14(2).
106. Ibid, para. 49.
107. Nas, S., (Bits of Freedom)
108. The Multatuli Project: ISP Notice &take down, 2004, at 〈http://www.bof.nl/docs/researchpaperSANE.pdf〉.
109. Note also Ahlert, C., Marsden, C., and Yung, C., How 'Liberty' Disappeared from Cyberspace: The Mystery Shopper Tests Internet Content Self-Regulation, at 〈http://pcmlp.socleg.ox.ac.uk/text/liberty.pdf〉.
110. See generally Akdeniz, Y., Internet Child Pornography and the Law: National and International Responses, (Ashgate, 2008), pp 17-92, and 227-245.
111. The text of the CyberCrime Convention can be found at 〈http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/projects/cybercrime.htm〉.
112. Plus the external supporters United States, Canada, South Africa, and Japan and Montenegro.
113. Albania, Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine, United States of America, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
114. See generally Akdeniz, Y., An Advocacy Handbook for the Non Governmental Organizations: The Council of Europe's Cyber Crime Convention 2001 and the additional protocol on the crim-inalisation of acts of a racist or xenophobic nature committed through computer systems, Cyber-Rights and Cyber-Liberties, 2003, (revised May 2008), at 〈http://www.cyber-rights.org/cybercrime/coe- handbook-crcl.pdf〉.
115. See generally Akdeniz, Y., Racism on the Internet, Council of Europe Publishing, 2010 (ISBN 978-92-871-6634-0).
116. Including the external supporters Canada, and South Africa. 87 Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Ukraine, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
117. Article 5 of the Council of Europe Convention on the preven tion of terrorism (CETS 196).
118. Ibid., article 6.
119. Ibid., article 7.
120. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, Explanatory Report of the Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cyber Crime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems, (2002) at para. 25, at 〈http://conventions.coe.int/ Treaty/en/Reports/Html/189.htm〉.
121. CoE Cybercrime Convention Committee (T-CY), 2nd Multilat eral Consultation of the Parties, Strasbourg, 13 and 14 June, 2007, Strasbourg, 15 June, 2007, T-CY (2007) 03, para. 29.
122. CM/Rec(2007)16 of November, 2007.
123. Recommendation CM/Rec(2007)16 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on measures to promote the public service value of the Internet: Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 7 November, 2007 at the 1010th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies.
124. Recommendation CM/Rec(2008)6 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on measures to promote the respect for freedom of expression and information with regard to Internet filters: Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 26 March, 2008 at the 1022nd meeting of the Ministers' Deputies.
125. Freedom of communication on the Internet, Declaration adopted by the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers on 28 May, 2003 at the 840th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies.
126. Ibid, Principle 3.
127. Recommendation CM/Rec(2008)6 of the Committee of Minis ters to member states on measures to promote the respect for freedom of expression and information with regard to Internet filters: Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 26 March, 2008 at the 1022nd meeting of the Ministers' Deputies.
128. Ibid.
129. Guideline I. 1Recommendation CM/Rec(2009)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on measures to protect children against harmful content and behaviour and to promote their active participation in the new information and communications environment
130. adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 8 July 2009 at the 1063rd meeting of the Ministers' Deputies
131. See Guidelines 7, Recommendation CM/Rec(2009)5 of the Committee of Ministers.
132. To be prepared in full compliance with the right to freedom of expression and information in accordance with Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
133. See Guidelines 12, Recommendation CM/Rec(2009)5 of the Committee of Ministers.
134. See Guidelines 13, Recommendation CM/Rec(2009)5 of the Committee of Ministers.
135. See Proposal for a Council Framework Decision on combating the sexual abuse, sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, repealing Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA, para graph 12 and draft Article 18 entitled Blocking access to websites containing child pornography.
136. See 〈http://tor.eff.org/〉.
137. See Akdeniz, Y., & Altiparmak, K., Internet: Restricted Access: A Critical Assessment of Internet Content Regulation and Censorship in Turkey, Ankara: Imaj Yayinevi (http://www.imajyayinevi.com/), November 2008.
138. An online version is available through 〈http://www.cyber-rights.org. tr〉.
139. Note further Akdeniz, Y., Report of the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media on Turkey and Internet Censorship, January 2010, at 〈http://www.osce.org/documents/rfm/2010/01/42294-en.pdf〉.
140. American Civil Liberties Union, Press Release, "ACLU Joins International Protest Against Global Internet Censorship Plans," 9 September, 1999.
141. See Report of the Intergovernmental Working Group on the effective implementation of the Durban Declaration and Pro gramme of Action on its fourth session, UN ESCOR, 62d Sess., UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/18 (2006), at 〈http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G06/119/23/PDF/G0611923.pdf〉, para. 47.
142. Note examples of such blocking activity taking place in Turkey: Akdeniz, Y., Report of the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media on Turkey and Internet Censorship, January 2010, at 〈http://www.osce.org/documents/rfm/ 2010/01/42294-en. pdf〉.
143. Khurshid Mustafa and Tarzibachi v. Sweden, App. no. 23883/06, judgment of 16 December, 2008.
144. Global Internet Liberty Campaign, 1999.
145. Schulz, W., Regulating the Code? Using ISPs to block banned web sites in Germany, 14th Computers, Freedom & Privacy Conference, 22 April, 2004, at 〈http://www.cfp2004.org/program/materials/c7-schulz.ppt〉.
146. Blacklists prepared by government bodies or by commercial organizations.
147. Developed to meet a set of criteria intended to determine the acceptability of content.
148. See Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) report, Closed Environment Testing of ISP-Level Internet Content Filtering, June 2008, at 〈http://www.acma.gov.au/webwr/-assets/main/lib310554/isp-level-internet- content-filtering-trial-report. pdf〉.
149. See Bladet Tromsø and Stensaas judgment of 20 May 1999, Reports 1999.
150. See Sürek v. Turkey (No. 1) (application no. 26682/95), judgment of 8 July 1999, Reports 1999;
151. Sürek (No. 3) judgment of 8 July 1999.
152. See Sunday Times v. UK (No.2), Series A no. 217, 26.11.1991, para. 50;
153. Okçuoglu v. Turkey, No. 24246/94, 8.7.1999, para. 43.
154. Handyside judgment of 7 December 1976, Series A No. 24, §49;
155. Castells v. Spain judgment of 23 April 1992, Series A No. 236.
156. Lingens v. Austria, 8 July 1986, Series A no. 103, p. 26, § 41. 121 Autronic AG judgment of 22 May 1990, Series A No. 178, § 61. 122
157. Case of Urper and Others v. Turkey, (Applications nos. 14526/07, 14747/07, 15022/07, 15737/07, 36137/07, 47245/07, 50371/07, 50372/07 and 54637/07)
158. Chamber Judgment of 20.10.2009, paras 39\45.
159. Observer and Guardian v. the United Kingdom, 26 November 1991, § 59, Series A no. 216).
160. Case of Urper and Others v. Turkey, (Applications nos. 14526/07, 14747/07, 15022/07, 15737/07, 36137/07, 47245/07, 50371/07, 50372/07 and 54637/07)
161. Chamber Judgment of 20.10.2009, paras 39\45.
162. Cumpana and Mazare v. Romania, no. 33348/96, § 119, 10 June 2003;
163. Obukhova v. Russia, no. 34736/03, § 28, 8 January 2009
164. Case of Urper and Others v. Turkey, (Applications nos. 14526/07, 14747/07, 15022/07, 15737/07, 36137/07, 47245/07, 50371/07, 50372/07 and 54637/07)
165. Chamber Judgment of 20.10.2009, paras 39\45.
166. See generally Ryan, J., Countering Militant Islamist Radical-isation on the Internet: A User Driven Strategy to Recover the Web, Dublin: Institute of European Affairs, 2007.
167. The Guardian, "Surfing with a safety net: The government is leaning on ISPs to install web filters for home broadband, at huge cost," 29 June, 2006.
168. Note for example the case of Klass v. Federal Republic of Germany within this context: judgment of 18 November 1977, European Court of Human Rights, Series A No 28.
169. Wikileaks, "797 domains on Finnish Internet censorship list, including censorship critic, 2008," 05 January, 2009, at 〈http://www.wikileaks.com/wiki/797-domains-on-Finnish-Internet- censorship-list%2C-including-censorship-critic%2C-2008〉.
170. Wikileaks, "Denmark: 3863 sites on censorship list," February, 2008, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Denmark:-3863-sites-on- censorship-list%2C-Feb-2008〉.
171. Wikileaks, "Italian secret internet censorship list, 287 site subset, 21 June, 2009, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Italian-secret- internet-censorship-list%2C-287-site-subset%2C-21-Jun-2009〉.
172. Wikileaks, "China: censorship keywords, policies and black lists for leading search engine Baidu, 2006-2009," 02 May, 2009, at 〈http://www.wikileaks.com/wiki/China:-censorship-keywords% 2C-policies-and-blacklists-for-leading-search-engine-Baidu% 2C-2006-2009〉.
173. Wikileaks, "Thailand official MICT censorship list," 20 December, 2008, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Thailand-official- MICT-censorship-list%2C-20-Dec-2008〉.
174. Wikileaks, "Leaked Australian blacklist reveals banned sites," 19 March, 2009, at 〈http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Leaked-Australian-blacklist- reveals-banned-sites〉.