Scaling and mechanics of carnivoran footpads reveal the principles of footpad design

Journal of the Royal Society Interface

Volumn 7, Issue 49, 2010, Pages 1145-1155

  Chi, Kai Jung ^a,b   Roth, V Louise ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NATIONAL CHUNG HSING UNIVERSITY   (Taiwan)

Author keywords

Allometry; Biomechanics; Digitigrade mammals; Feet; Footpad function; Locomotion

Indexed keywords

BIOMECHANICS; DEGREES OF FREEDOM (MECHANICS); HISTOLOGY; MAMMALS; MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM; STIFFNESS; TISSUE;

ALLOMETRY; DIGITIGRADE MAMMALS; FEET; FOOTPAD FUNCTION; LOCOMOTION;

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES;

ALLOMETRY; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL TISSUE; ARTICLE; BIOMECHANICS; BODY MASS; CANIS FAMILIARIS; CARNIVORA; CAT; CHRYSOCYON BRACHYURUS; COMPRESSION; CROCUTA CROCUTA; DOG; ELASTICITY; FELIS CATUS; FEMALE; FOOT PAD; GEOMETRY; LOCOMOTION; MALE; NEOFELIS NEBULOSA; NONHUMAN; PHYLOGENY; PREDICTION; PRESSURE; RIGIDITY; STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP; THICKNESS; WOLF; ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY; ANIMAL; CANIDAE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; FELIDAE; FOOT; HYENA; LIMB; MAMMAL; MECHANICS; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; CANIDAE; CARNIVORA; CATS; DOGS; EXTREMITIES; FELIDAE; FOOT; HYAENIDAE; MAMMALS; MECHANICAL PHENOMENA;

EID: 77955597668     PISSN: 17425689     EISSN: 17425662     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2009.0556     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. Aerts, P., Ker, R. F., De Clercq, D., Ilsley, D. W. & Alexander, R. M. 1995 The mechanical properties of the human heel pad: a paradox resolved. J. Biomech. 28, 1299-1308. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290(95)00009-7)
2. Alexander, R. M. 1988 Elastic mechanisms in animal movement. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3. Alexander, R. M. & Jayes, A. S. 1983 A dynamic similarity hypothesis for the gaits of quadrupedal mammals. J. Zool. (London) 201, 135-152. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1983.tb04266.x
4. Alexander, R. M. & Vernon, A. 1975 The mechanics of hopping by kangaroos (Macropodidae). J. Zool. (London) 177, 265-303. (doi:10.1111/j.1469- 7998.1975.tb05983.x)
5. Alexander, R. M., Jayes, A. S., Maloiy, G. M. O. & Wathuta, E. M. 1979 Allometry of the limb bones of mammals from shrews (Sorex) to elephant (Loxodonta). J. Zool. (London) 189, 305-314. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1979. tb03964.x)
6. Alexander, R. M., Bennett, M. B. & Ker, R. F. 1986 Mechanical properties and function of the paw pads of some mammals. J. Zool. (London) 209, 405-419.
7. Bennett, M. B. & Taylor, G. C. 1995 Scaling of elastic strain energy in kangaroos and the benefits of being big. Nature 378, 56-59. (doi:10.1038/378056a0)
8. Biewener, A. A. 1989 Scaling body support in mammals: limb posture and muscle mechanics. Science 245, 45-48. (doi:10.1126/science.2740914)
9. Biewener, A. A. 2000 Scaling of terrestrial support: differing solutions to mechanical constraints of size. In Scaling in biology (eds J. H. Brown & G. B. West), pp. 51-66. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
10. Biewener, A. A. 2005 Biomechanical consequences of scaling. J. Exp. Biol. 208, 1665-1676. (doi:10.1242/jeb.01520)
11. Bryant, J. D., Bennett, M. B., Brust, J. & Alexander, R. M. 1987 Force exerted on the ground by galloping dogs (Canis familiaris). J. Zool. (London) 213, 193-203. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb03693.x)
12. Carrano, M. T. 1997 Morphological indicators of foot posture in mammals: a statistical and biomechanical analysis. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 121, 77-104. (doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1997.tb00148.x)
13. Carrano, M. T. 2001 Implications of limb bone scaling, curvature and eccentricity in mammals and non-avian dinosaurs. J. Zool. (London) 254, 41-55. (doi:10.1017/S0952836901000541)
14. Chang, Y.-H., Hamerski, C. M. & Kram, R. 2001 Applied horizontal force increases impact loading in reduced-gravity running. J. Biomech. 34, 679-685. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(00)00196-2) (Pubitemid 32328256)
15. Chi, K.-J. 2005 Functional morphology and biomechanics of mammalian footpads. PhD thesis, Duke University, Durham, NC.
16. Chi, K.-J. & Roth, V. L. 2004 Scaling of foot contact area and its mechanical implications for mammals of different foot postures. Integr. Comp. Biol. 44, 535.
17. Chi, K.-J. & Schmitt, D. 2005 Mechanical energy and effective foot mass during impact loading of walking and running. J. Biomech. 38, 1387-1395. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.06.020) (Pubitemid 40744895)
18. Cumming, D. H. M. & Cumming, G. S. 2003 Ungulate community structure and ecological processes: body size, hoof area and trampling in African savannas. Oecologia 134, 560-568.
19. Currey, J. D. 2002 Bones: structure and mechanics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
20. Day, L. M. & Jayne, B. C. 2007 Interspecific scaling of the morphology and posture of the limbs during the locomotion of cats (Felidae). J. Exp. Biol. 210, 642-654. (doi:10.1242/jeb.02703)
21. Farley, C. T., Glasheen, J. & McMahon, T. A. 1993 Running springs: speed and animal size. J. Exp. Biol. 185, 71-86.
22. Fritton, S. P., McLeod, K. J. & Rubin, C. T. 2000 Quantifying the strain history of bone: spatial uniformity and selfsimilarity of low magnitudes strains. J. Biomech. 33, 317-325. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(99)00210-9)
23. Grand, T. I. 1977 Body weight: its relation to tissue composition, segment distribution, and motor function I. Interspecific comparisons. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 47, 211-240. (doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330470204)
24. Ker, R. F. 1996 The time-dependent mechanical properties of the human heel pad in the context of locomotion. J. Exp. Biol. 199, 1501-1508.
25. Ker, R. F. 1999 The design of soft collagenous load-bearing tissues. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 3315-3324.
26. Ker, R. F., Alexander, R. M. & Bennett, M. B. 1988 Why are mammalian tendons so thick? J. Zool. (London) 216, 309-324. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1988. tb02432.x)
27. Lee, D. V., Bertram, J. E. & Todhunter, R. J. 1999 Acceleration and balance in trotting dogs. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 3565-3573.
28. McMahon, T. A. 1973 Size and shape in biology. Science 179, 1201-1204. (doi:10.1126/science.179.4079.1201)
29. Michilsens, F., Aerts, P., Van Damme, R. & D'Août, K. 2009 Scaling of plantar pressures in mammals. J. Zool. (London) 279, 236-242. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00611.x)
30. Miller, C. E., Basu, C., Fritsch, G., Hildebrandt, T. & Hutchinson, J. R. 2008 Ontogenetic scaling of foot musculoskeletal anatomy in elephants. J. R. Soc. Interface 5, 465-475. (doi:10.1098/rsif.2007.1220)
31. Rayner, J. M. V. 1985 Linear relations in biomechanics: the statistics of scaling functions. J. Zool. (London) 206, 415-439.
32. Rubin, C. T., McLeod, K. J. & Bain, S. D. 1990 Functional strains and cortical bone adaptation: epigenetic assurance of skeletal integrity. J. Biomech. 23(Suppl.), 43-54.
33. Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1984 Scaling: why is animal size so important? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
34. Silva, M. & Downing, J. A. 1995 CRC handbook of mammalian body masses. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
35. Sokolov, V. E. 1982 Mammal skin. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
36. Stuart, C. & Stuart, T. 2000 A field guide to the tracks and signs of Southern and East African wildlife. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik Publishers.
37. Taylor, M. E. 1988 Foot structure and phylogeny in the Viverridae (Carnivora). J. Zool. (London) 216, 131-139. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1988. tb02420.x)
38. Turner, C. H. 1998 Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone 23, 399-407. (doi:10.1016/S8756-3282(98)00118-5)
39. Usherwood, J. R. &Wilson, A. M. 2005 No force limit on greyhound sprint speed. Nature 438, 753-754. (doi:10.1038/438753a)
40. Vogel, S. 2003 Comparative biomechanics: life's physical world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
41. Wainwright, S. A., Biggs, W. D., Curry, J. D. & Gosline, J. M. 1976 Mechanical design in organisms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
42. Whittle, M. W. 1999 Generation and attenuation of transient impulsive forces beneath the foot: a review. Gait Posture 10, 264-275. (doi:10.1016/S0966-6362(99)00041-7)