Energy v. water

Ecology Law Quarterly

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 353-380

  Odotn, Olivia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77955524015     PISSN: 00461121     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (234)

1. Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. 1498,1504 (2009)
2. Most legal literature refers to this case as Riverkeeper 11 because it is second in a line of related cases. However, this Note only cursorily mentions Riverkeeper I.
3. In his dissenting opinion, Justice Stevens points out that the EPA only considered the environmental benefit of saving 2 percent of the aquatic species that are killed by cooling water intake structures.
4. Id. at 1516-17.
5. This Note describes many more environmental factors that, for unknown reasons, were not addressed by EPA or the Court. See infra Part III.
6. 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(b), 1314(b), 1326(b), 1331(b)(1)(A), 1361(b) (2006). This structure is in contrast to other types of environmental statutes, such as the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 U.S.C. § 4321-4347, which achieve their statutory goals by other means, such as creating incentives or gathering information.
7. 33 U.S.C. § 1251.
8. Id. §§ 1311(b)(1)(A), 1361.
9. Id. §§ 1331(b)(1)(A), 1326(b), 1361.
10. See, e.g., EPA v. Nat'l Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. 64, 75 (1977)
11. Nafl Ass'n of Metal Finishers v. EPA, 719 F.2d 624, 657 (3d Cir. 1983)
12. Am. Paper Inst. v. EPA, 660 F.2d 954 (4th Cir. 1981).
13. 33 U.S.C. § 1311(b)(l)(A)(i). The interim standards expired in 1977, after which facilities were to acquire the best available technology economically feasible by 1987.
14. Id. § 1311(b)(2)(A). Similar to the Standard Industrial Classification system, the EPA regulates polluters by class, a highly specific designation based on facility parameters.
15. Chemical Mnfrs. Ass'n v. EPA, 870 F.2d 177,185 (5th Cir. 1989).
16. Factors relating to the assessment of [BPT]⋯ shall include consideration of the total cost of application of technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved." 33 U.S.C. § 1314(b)(1)(B).
17. Nat'l Ass'n of Metal Finishers, 719 F.2d at 657.
18. See Nat'l Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. at 75.
19. 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(b)(2)(E), 1314(a)(4).
20. "Factors relating to the assessment of [BCT] ⋯ shall include consideration of the reasonableness of the relationship between the costs of attaining a reduction in effluents and the effluent reduction benefits derived." Id. $ 1314(b)(4)(B).
21. See Am. Paper Inst. v. EPA, 660 F.2d 954,962-63 (4th Cir. 1981).
22. 33 U.S.C. 11317(a)(2)
23. CLAUDIA COPELAND, CONG. RESEARCH SERV., CLEAN WATER ACT: A SUMMARY OF THE LAW (2008).
24. See Kennecott v. EPA, 780 F.2d 445,488 (4th Cir. 1986).
25. EPA v. Nat'l Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. 64,71 (1977)
26. Reynolds Metal Co. v. EPA, 760 F.2d 549 (4th Cir. 1985)
27. Rybachek v. EPA, 904 F.2d 1276, 1290-91 (9th Cir. 1990)
28. Am. Petroleum Inst. v. EPA, 858 F.2d 261,264 (5th Cir. 1988).
29. Factors relating to the assessment of best available technology shall take into account.⋯ the cost of achieving such effluent reduction ⋯ and such other factors as the Administrator deems appropriate." 33 U.S.C. §1314(b)(2)(B). Other factors include "age of equipment and facilities involved, the process employed, potential process changes, non-water quality environmental impacts, including energy requirements and other such factors as the EPA Administrator deems appropriate." EPA, Effluent Limitation Guidelines, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.epa.gOv/guide/ questions/#bat (last visited Mar. 28,2010).
30. Du Pont v. Train, 430 U.S. 112,126-27 (1977).
31. Nat'l Crushed Stone, 449 U.S.at 74.
32. 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(c), 1314(b)(2)(B), 1317(a)(2).
33. Id.§1326(1972).
34. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576,41,590 (Jul. 9,2004) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 9,122-25).
35. 69 Fed. Reg. 41 Id.
36. 25. 33 U.S.C. § 1326(aHb) (2006).
37. Id.§ 1326(a).
38. JOAN F. KENNY ET AL., U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, CIRCULAR 1344, ESTIMATED USE OF WATER IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2005, at 38 (2009), available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/.
39. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,576.
40. ACQUIRING WATER FOR ENERGY: INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS 2-3 (Gary Weatherford et al. eds., 1982).
41. Acquiring Wu for Energy: Institutional aspects 2-3 Id. at 2.
42. Id. Dry cooling reduces plant efficiency, thus requiring more raw fuel to produce an equivalent amount of energy. Id. at 4.
43. U.S. DEP'T OF ENERGY, ENERGY DEMANDS ON WATER RESOURCES: REPORT TO CONGRESS ON THE INTERDEPENDENCY OF ENERGY AND WATER 18 (2006), available at http://www.sandia.gov/energy-water/congress-report.htm.
44. KENNY ET AL., supra note 27, at 41.
45. See Benjamin K. Sovacool, Running on Empty: The Electricity-Water Nexus and the U.S. Electric Utility Sector, 30 ENERGY LJ. 11,17 (2009).
46. U.S. DEP'T OF ENERGY, supra note 32, at 19.
47. 36. Thomas J. Feeley III et al., Water: A Critical Resource in the Thermoelectric Power Industry, 33 ENERGY 1,3 (2008).
48. ACQUIRING WATER FOR ENERGY: INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, supra note 29, at 3.
49. Id.
50. Id at 2.
51. Id. at 3.
52. Id. 3-4.
53. Id at 3.
54. Id.
55. Feeley III et al., supra note 36, at 3.
56. ACQUIRING WATER FOR ENERGY: INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, supra note 29, at 4
57. Joe O'Hagan, Cal. Energy Comm'n, PIER PROGRAM Project Summary: Wet, Dry, Hybrid Wet/Dry, and Alternative Cooling Technologies, http://www.energy.ca.gov/ research/environmental/project-fact-sheets/100-98-001-6.html (last visited Apr. 4,2010).
58. See generally KENNY ET AL., supra note 27, at 38.
59. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576,41,586 (Jul. 9,2004) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 9,122-25).
60. 69 Fed. Reg. 41 Id.
61. 69 Fed. Reg. 41 Id.
62. Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. 1498,1504 (2009).
63. Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper Id.
64. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,576.
65. 69 Fed. Reg. Id.
66. 69 Fed. Reg Id.
67. 69 Fed. Reg Id.
68. 69 Fed. Reg Id.
69. Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. 1498,1501 (2009).
70. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,576.
71. Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. at 1506.
72. Id. at 1508.
73. The 1972 amendments to CWA included section 316 and required that "the location, design, construction, and capacity of cooling water intake structures reflect the best technology available for minimizing adverse environmental impact." 33 U.S.C. § 1326(b) (2006).
74. Riverkeeper, Inc. v. EPA, 475 F.3d 83 (2d Cir. 2007).
75. Petition for Writ of Certiorari, Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. 1498 (Nos. 07-588, 07-589 & 07- 597).
76. See Riverkeeper, Inc. v. EPA, 358 F.3d 174,181 (2d Cir. 2004)
77. ("A single power plant might impinge a million adult fish in just a three-week period, or entrain some 3 to 4 billion smaller fish and shellfish in a year, destabilizing wildlife populations in the surrounding ecosystem.").
78. Id. at 205.
79. Petition for Writ of Certiorari, Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. 1498 (No. 07-588, 07-589 & 07- 597).
80. Id.
81. Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. at 1498.
82. Id. at 1506.
83. CBA is appropriate when an agency wishes to maximize net economic contribution to social welfare.
84. See Partha Dasgupta & Karl-Goran Maler, The Environment: The Environment and Emerging Development Issues, in COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS 319-35
85. (Richard Layard & Stephen Glaister, eds., 1994). Cost-effectiveness is appropriate when the agency is determined to take an action toward a predefined goal and must identify the most efficient means of reaching that goal. Charles M. Paulsen & Kris Wernstedt, Cost-effectiveness Analysis for Complex Managed Hydrosystems: An Application to the Columbia River Basin, 28 J. ENVTL. ECON. & MGMT 388, 388-400 (1995).
86. Technically, they are different methods. Most non-economists, however, do not distinguish between them and refer to both tests as CBA.
87. Daniel Huppert & Sylvia Kantor, Economic Perspectives, in RIVER ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT: LESSONS FROM THE PACIFIC COASTAL ECOREGION 585 (Robert J. Naiman & Robert E. Bilby eds., 1998).
88. River Ecology and Management: Lessons From the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion Id. at 579-80.
89. River Ecology and Management: Lessons From the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion Id. at 577.
90. River Ecology and Management: Lessons From the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion Id at 572.
91. River Ecology and Management: Lessons From the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion Id. at 572-73.
92. Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1498, 1516-17 (2009) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
93. When EPA did calculate the environmental benefit of saving 100 percent of aquatic organisms, the environmental benefit increased by an order of magnitude. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576, 41,666 (Jul. 9,1994).
94. 33 U.S.C. § 1326(b) (2006).
95. Deborah G. Nagle & James T. Morgan Jr., A Draft Regulatory Framework for Analyzing Potential Adverse Environmental Impact From Cooling Water Intake Structures, 3 ENVTL. SCI. & POL ix-xiv, ix (2000) (citing EPA, DRAFT GUIDANCE FOR EVALUATING THE ADVERSE IMPACT OF COOLING WATER INTAKE STRUCTURES ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT (1977)).
96. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,583.
97. 69 Fed. Reg. at 41 Id.
98. 69 Fed. Reg. at 41 Id.
99. 40 C.F.R § 125.94(b)(lH2) (2009).
100. Id. § 125.94(a)(5)(i)-(ii)
101. Nagle & Morgan Jr., supra note 79, at xiv.
102. Id.
103. Tier 1 evaluates approach velocity, total intake flow, intake flow as a percentage of source body flow/volume, site environmental characteristics (such as species compilation and physical characteristics that may increase concentrations of fish at intakes), and other site and operational characteristics. If a facility passes this evaluation, it is deemed to be minimizing adverse environmental impacts. Id. at x.
104. Id. at xiii.
105. 40 C.F.R. § 402.
106. The goal of section 316(a) limitations on thermal discharge pollution are to "assure the protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous population of shellfish, fish, and wildlife." 118 CONG. REC. 33,762 (daily ed. Oct. 4,1972)
107. May J. Van Rossum The Quick And The Dead M. (1995-96). 373399 Rev. L. Vt. 20 Act Water Clean The Of 316(b) Section Of Application And Implementation The And Entrapment F.Entrainment
108. In re Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp., 2 Op. EPA GEN. COUNSEL 371, 381-82 (1977).
109. May & van Rossum, supra note 90, at 399-400.
110. 40 C.F.R. § 402.
111. Id.
112. 118 CONG. REG 33,762 (daily ed. Oct. 4,1972).
113. Appalachian Power Co. v. Train, 566 F2d 451 (4th Cir. 1977)
114. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Revision of Regulations, 44 Fed. Reg. 32,854, 32,956 (Jun. 7, 1979).
115. In re Pub. Serv. Co. of N.H., 10 Env't Rep. Cas. (BNA) 1257,1261 (Envtl. Prot. Agency June 17,1977).
116. Id.
117. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576, 415,84-415,86 (Jul. 9, 2004) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 125, Subpart J (App. 122a-593a)).
118. Regulations Addressing Cooling Water Intake Structures for New Facilities, 66 Fed. Reg. 65,256, 65,256-65345 (Dec. 18, 2001)
119. Regulations Addressing Cooling Water Intake Structures for New Facilities, 65 Fed. Reg. 49,060,49,060-49,121 (Aug. 10,2000).
120. See infra Part IV.
121. Regulations Addressing Cooling Water Intake Structures, 66 Fed. Reg. at 65,256-345
122. Regulations Addressing Cooling Water Intake Structures, 65 Fed. Reg. at 49,060-121.
123. In re Brunswick Steam Electric Plant, 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. 172, 183 (Envtl. Prot. Agency June 1,1976) (decision of the general counsel) (citations omitted).
124. Carolina Power & Light Co., Permit No. NC007064, at 3, 28 (Envtl. Prot. Agency Nov. 7,1977) (citations omitted).
125. Cooling Water Intake Structures, 38 Fed. Reg. 34,410 (Dec. 13, 1973) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pts 401-02).
126. 106. EPA, OFFICE OF WASTE ENFORCEMENT, PERMITS DIV., DRAFT GUIDANCE FOR EVALUATING THE ADVERSE IMPACT OF COOLING WATER INTAKE STRUCTURES ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT: SECTION 316(B) P.L. 92-500, at 1 (1977), available at http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/316b/files/1977AEIguid.pdf.
127. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576, 41,586 (Jul. 9,2004) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 125, Subpart J (App. 122a-593a)).
128. John A. Veil et al., A Holistic Look at Minimizing Adverse Environmental Impact Under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act, in DEFINING AND ASSESSING ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT FROM POWER PLANT: IMPINGEMENT AND ENTRAINMENT OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 40 (Douglas A. Dixon, John A. Veil & Joe Wisniewski eds., 2003).
129. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,588-39.
130. May & van Rossum, supra note 90, at 376.
131. The intake structure at issue in Seabrook was 30.5 feet in diameter, had an intake velocity of one foot per second and withdrew 1.2 billion gallons per day. In re Pub. Serv. Co. of N.H., 10 Env't Rep. Cas. (BNA) 1257,1258-59 (Envtl. Prot. Agency June 17,1977).
132. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,586.
133. 69 Fed. Reg. Id.
134. 69 Fed. Reg. Id.
135. E.P. Taft, Fish Protection Technologies: a Status Report, 3 ENVTL. SCI. & POL. 349,349-59 (2000).
136. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,586.
137. Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1498, 1516-17 (2009) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
138. SEE, E.G., RICHARD REVESZ & MICHAEL LLVERMORE, RETAKING RATIONALITY: HOW COST-BENEFTT ANALYSIS CAN BETTER PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT AND OUR HEALTH (2008)
139. PER-OLOV JOHNANSSON, COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE (1993)
140. DANIEL SCHWARTZMAN ET AL., COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS: POLITICS, ETHICS, AND METHODS (1982)
141. A. MYRICK FREEMAN III, THE BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE (1979).
142. The small organisms susceptible to entrainment are vital links in the food chain of those species that are commercially and recreationally valuable. EPA cites to a study reporting that death of forage fish may result in losses of up to 25 percent of commercially and recreationally valuable fish. Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,586-41,587 (citing J. Kevin Summers, Simulating the Indirect Effects of Power Plant Entrainment Losses on an Estuarine Ecosystem, 49 ECOLOGICAL MODELING 31-47 (1989)).
143. Riverkeeper, 129 S. Ct. at 1516-17 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
144. Id. at 1516
145. (citing EPA, ECONOMIC AND BENEFITS ANALYSIS FOR THE PROPOSED SECTION 316(B) PHASE II EXISTING FACILITIES RULE, Dl-4 (2002), available at http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/316b/phase2/econbenefits).
146. Id. at 1516-17
147. (citing Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,666).
148. Id. at 1517
149. (quoting Final Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,660).
150. See KENNY ET AL., supra note 27, at 23,41 tbl.13.
151. Id at 41 tbl.13.
152. Hearing Before the Subcomm. on Air and Water Pollution of the Senate Comm. on Public Works, 90th Cong., 2d Sess. 136 (1968).
153. See KELLY BIRKINSHAW ET. AL., ELEC. POWER RESEARCH INST., COMPARISON OF ALTERNATE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR CALIFORNIA POWER PLANTS: ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER TRADEOFFS 6-3 (2002).
154. In re Brunswick Steam Electric Plant, 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. 172, 176,181 (Envtl. Prot. Agency June 1,1976) (decision of the general counsel).
155. EPA, EFFLUENTS GUIDELINES DIV., DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR BEST TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE FOR THE LOCATION, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND CAPACITY OF COOUNG WATER INTAKE STRUCTURES FOR MINIMIZING ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 149 (1976).
156. Brunswick Steam, 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. at 176,181.
157. B. Steams 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. Id. at 179 (emphasis added).
158. Id. at 178-79.
159. Birkinshaw, supra note 127, at 6-3.
160. For example, the change in temperature between withdrawal and discharge was 20.9 degrees F in Brunswick. Carolina Power & Light Co., Permit No. NC007064, at 3,13-14 (Envtl. Prot. Agency Nov. 7,1977).
161. Birkinshaw, supra note 127, at 6-4.
162. Id. at 6-5.
163. In re Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp., 2 Op. EPA GEN. COUNSEL 371,379 (1977).
164. Id. at 380-81.
165. David R. Montgomery & John M. Buffington, Channel Processes, Classification, and Response, in RIVER ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT: LESSONS FROM THE PACIFIC COASTAL ECOREGION17 (Robert J. Naiman & Robert E. Bilby eds., 1998).
166. Proposed Regulations for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 67 Fed. Reg. 17,122,17,137 n.23 (Apr. 9,2002).
167. 67 Fed. Reg. Id.
168. Birkinshaw, supra note 127, at 6-7.
169. Id. at 6-8.
170. Id.
171. Id.
172. Id. at 6-3.
173. Id.
174. John Veil et al., supra note 108, at 41.
175. Carolina Power & Light Co., Permit No. NC007064, at 2-3 (Envtl. Prot. Agency Nov. 7, 1977) (citations omitted).
176. May & van Rossum, supra note 90, at 463. (quoting Brunswick Memorandum from Howard D. Zeller Deputy Director, Enforcement Division, to Rebecca W. Hanmer, Region Administrator (Mar. 21,1980), at 3).
177. See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System - Final Regulations to Establish Requirements for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576,41,589 (July 9,2004).
178. Id.
179. Id.
180. U.S. DEP'T OF ENERGY, supra note 32, at 9.
181. NAT'L RENEWABLE ENERGY LAB., EXPLORING THE ENERGY/WATER NEXUS: A STAKEHOLDER DIALOGUE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF CRITICAL ISSUES FORUM SUMMARY 2 (2005), available at http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/workshops/pdfs/water-nexus- summ-05.pdf.
182. U.S. DEPT OF ENERGY, supra note 32, at 25.
183. Sovacool, supra note 34, at 11.
184. Id.
185. See, e.g., Press Release, H. Comm. on Sci. & Tech., Members, Witnesses Discuss Water, Energy Link (July 9, 2009), available at http://science.house.gov/press/PRArticle.aspx?NewsIDs 2549
186. (quoting Subcommittee Chairman Brian Baird, D-WA) ("Too often these two essential resources are thought of independently.⋯ However, the strong linkage between water and energy requires that we make a more concerted effort to ensure that water and energy technologies are being developed synergistically."). Several states have laws on the books acknowledging the need for integrated water and energy solutions. Cal. Pub. Utils. Code § 25008 promotes water and energy conservation and exploitation of alternative energy and water sources. Likewise, Colorado Revised Statutes § 40-2-123 promotes using solar energy in order to minimize water use for electric generation. Nevada Revised Statutes § 533.372 grants the State Engineer the authority to deny water transfers to generate electricity to be exported out of Nevada. South Dakota Codified Laws §46A- 1- 71 calls groundwater exploitation for energy development in Wyoming an "immediate threat" to ground and surface water supplies and many beneficial uses in western South Dakota. Washington has it backwards. Revised Code of Washington § 90.82.070 promotes water conservation in order to supply enough water for power generation and does not promote water conservation in the energy sector.
187. Technology Research and Development Efforts Related to the Energy and Water Linkage: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on Energy & Env't of the H. Comm. on Sci. & Tech., 111th Cong. (2009) (statement of Brian Baird, Chairman, Subcomm. on Energy & Env't), available at http://science.house.gov/ publications/OpeningStatement.aspx?OSID=2742.
188. Western Water Supply: Hearing Before the Senate Comm. on Energy and Natural Resources, 108th Cong. 2d Sess. 5 (2004) (statement of Bennet Raley, Assistant Sec'y for Water and Science, Dep't of Interior).
189. He argues that Atlanta, Charlotte, Chicago, Denver, Houston, Las Vegas, New York, and San Francisco will all face crises because of the energy-water nexus. It is important to note the geographic variety presented in this list; the problem extends beyond the arid West. Benjamin K. Sovacool, supra note 34, at 25-33.
190. ACQUIRING WATER FOR ENERGY: INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, supra note 29, at 4.
191. Id. at 7.
192. James Kanter, Climate Change Puts Nuclear Energy Into Hot Water?, N.Y. TIMES, May 20,2007, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/health/20iht- nuke.l.5788480.html.
193. Seacoast Anti-Pollution League v. Costle, 597 F.2d 306,311 (1st Cir. 1979).
194. May & van Rossum, supra note 90, at 475-76.
195. Id. at 477-78.
196. EPA, OFFICE OF WATER, NATIONAL WATER PROGRAM STRATEGY: RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE, 4-22 (2008), available at http://www.epa.gov/ow/chmatechange/ docs/3-27-08-ccdraftstrategy-final.pdf.
197. Holly Doremus & Michael Hanemann, The Challenges of Dynamic Water Management in the American West, 26 UCLA J. ENVTL. L. & POL'Y 55,75 (2007-2008).
198. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, CLIMATE CHANGE 2007: SYNTHESIS REPORT SUMMARY FOR POLICYMAKERS 8 (2007).
199. Id. at 10.
200. Id at 11.
201. Id.
202. KENNY ET AL., supra note 27, at 1.
203. NAT'L ENERGY POLICY DEV. GROUP, NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY: RELIABLE, AFFORDABLE, AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND ENERGY FOR AMERICA'S FUTURE ch. 1-4 (2001), available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/energy/2001/ National-Energy-Policy.pdf.
204. Id at ch. 1-5.
205. SCOTTISHPOWER, ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE REPORT 43 (2004-2005).
206. 33 U.S.C. § 1251(g) (2006).
207. Reed Benson, Pollution Without Solution: Flow Impairment Problems Under Clean Water Act Section 303,24 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 199 (2005).
208. Justice O'Connor, writing for the majority, opined
209. Petitioners' assertion that the Act is only concerned with water quality, not quantity, makes an artificial distinction, since a sufficient lowering of quantity could destroy all of a river's designated uses, and since the Act recognizes that reduced stream flow can constitute water pollution.
210. Pud No. 1 v. Wash. Dep't of Ecology, 511 U.S. 700,701 (1994).
211. Reed Benson, supra note 180, at 210 (citing Pud No. 1,511 U.S. at 719).
212. According to the EPA Effluents Guidelines Division
213. A cooling water intake structure comprises the total structure used to direct cooling water from a water body into the components of the cooling system wherein the cooling function is designed to take place, provided that the intended use of the major portion of the water so directed is to absorb waste heat rejected from the process or processes employed or from auxiliary operations on its premises, including air conditioning. As defined above, the intake structure includes circulating and service water pumps where those pumps are located in the cooling system prior to the heat exchanger or condensers.
214. EPA, OFFICE OF WATER & HAZARDOUS MATERIALS, EFFLUENTS GUIDELINES DIV., DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR BEST TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE FOR THE LOCATION, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND CAPACITY OF COOLING WATER INTAKE STRUCTURES FOR MINIMIZING ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 2-3 (1976).
215. See In re Brunswick Steam Electric Plant, 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. 172, 183
216. Envtl. Prot. Agency June 1, 1976) (decision of the general counsel)
217. In re Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp., 2 Op. EPA GEN. COUNSEL 371, 378 (1977)
218. May & van Rossum, supra note 90, at 399.
219. t Carolina Power & Light Co., Permit No. N0007064, at 3, 85 (Envtl. Prot. Agency Nov. 7, 1977) (citations omitted)
220. EPA, REGION IV, APPLICATION FOR NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE ELIMINATION SYSTEM PERMIT TO DISCHARGE TREATED WASTEWATER TO U.S. WATER, NO. TN 0005436, FACT SHEET 11(1986)
221. May & van Rossum, supra note 90, at 377.
222. In re Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp., 2 Op. EPA GEN. COUNSEL 371,378 (1977).
223. Best Technology Available for Cooling Water Intake Structures, 41 Fed. Reg. 17,387, 17,388 (Apr. 26, 1976) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 402)
224. Brunswick Steam, 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. at 181 ("[Ajlthough §316(b) does not authorize the Agency to impose a specific closed-cycle cooling technology, it does authorize the restriction of the capacity of an intake structure. Such a restriction may necessitate a closed-cycle cooling system. This result is not inconsistent with Agency restrictions on the volume of pollutant discharge under §§ 301 and 306. That is, while the Agency cannot specify abatement technologies to be employed under those Sections, the use of a particular treatment system may be a predictable consequence of the limitation imposed on the discharge of specific pollutants.").
225. May & van Rossum, supra note 90,470-71.
226. Central Hudson, 2 Op. EPA GEN. COUNSEL at 378,380-81.
227. Brunswick Steam, 2 NPDES REGULATORY HEARING PROC. at 183.
228. Id. at 181
229. Central Hudson, 2 Op. EPA GEN. COUNSEL at 378
230. In re Pub. Serv. Co. of N.H., 10 Env't Rep. Cas. (BNA) 1257 (Envtl. Prot. Agency June 17,1977). Limiting capacity in order to reduce entrainment and impingement was upheld in Brunswick II, the appeal of Carolina Power & Light. Carolina Power & Light Co., Appeal No. 77-19, Permit No. NC007064, at 12,33,60,91 (Envtl. Prot. Agency Feb. 20,1978).
231. Veil et al., supra note 108, at 40.
232. ACQUIRING WATER FOR ENERGY: INSTTTUTIONAL ASPECTS, supra note 29, at 4.
233. Veil et al., supra note 108, at 40.
234. EPA Suspends Cooling Water Rule In Response to Second Circuit Decision, 38 Env't Rep. (BNA) 1481 (2007).