Cybersieves

Duke Law Journal

Volumn 59, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 377-446

  Bambauer, Derek E ^a  

^a BROOKLYN LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77954789140     PISSN: 00127086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (374)

1. P.D. James, THE CHILDREN OF MEN 123 (1992).
2. See Sarah Lai Stirland, Cisco Leak: "Great Firewall" of China Was a Chance to Sell More Routers, WIRED, May 20, 2008, http://blog.wired.com/27bstroke6/2008/05/leaked-cisco-do.html.
3. See Danny Hakim, 3 Net Providers Will Block Sites with Child Sex, N.Y. TIMES, June 10, 2008, at A1.
4. see also Declan McCullagh, N.Y. Attorney General Forces ISPs to Curb Usenet Access, CNET NEWS, June 10, 2008, http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-9964895-38.html (quoting statements from Time Warner Cable and Verizon that they would block Usenet groups but not Web sites).
5. While there are multiple normative positions on legitimacy, this Article argues for a process-based approach that embodies an increasingly universal set of governance norms, as embodied in documents such as the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Authoritarian countries tend to adhere outwardly to the forms of process-based governance, even if their actions contravene its substance. I argue that process-based legitimacy maps sufficiently well onto widely shared norms that it should enjoy analytical primacy, and that it is likely to be the most helpful tool for multiple actors with different values-based agendas.
6. See generally John G. Palfrey, Jr. & Robert Rogoyski, The Move to the Middle: The Enduring Threat of "Harmful" Speech to the End-to-End Principle, 21 WASH. U. J.L. & POL'Y 31 (2006) (describing recent changes in Internet regulation practices).
7. See, e.g., Danny O'Brien, Turkish Censor Lacks Others' Subtle Touch, IRISH TIMES, Mar. 23, 2007, at 7 (noting that Great Britain and the European Union have expressed interest in blocking access to terrorism materials).
8. Kevin Voigt, Internet Censorship Gathers Steam, CNN.COM, Apr. 24, 2007, http://edition.cnn.com/2007/BUSINESS/04/18/online.censorship/index.html.
9. see also Matthew Quirk, The Web Police, ATL. MONTHLY, May 2006, at 50, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/200605/chinese-internet (detailing widespread censorship in China, Iran, and other authoritarian nations).
10. See, e.g., Bruce Schneier, Access Denied, 452 NATURE 155, 155 (2008).
11. Christopher S. Rugaber, Google Fights Global Internet Censorship, WASH. POST, June 25, 2007, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/25/AR2007062500364_pf.html.
12. See generally Jonathan Zittrain & John Palfrey, Reluctant Gatekeepers: Corporate Ethics on a Filtered Internet, in ACCESS DENIED: THE PRACTICE AND POLICY OF GLOBAL INTERNET FILTERING 103 (Ronald Deibert et al. eds., 2008) (arguing that corporations themselves are best positioned to take the lead in establishing a code of conduct).
13. Press Release, Ctr. for Democracy & Tech., Companies, Human Rights Groups, Investors, Academics and Technology Leaders to Address International Free Expression and Privacy Challenges (Jan. 18, 2007), http://www.cdt.org/press/20070118press-humanrights.php (announcing a meeting of various stakeholders "to seek solutions to the free expression and privacy challenges faced by technology and communications companies doing business internationally").
14. See generally U.S. DEPT. OF STATE, 2007 COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES (2008), available at http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/(describing individual countries' human rights advances and setbacks within a democratic government framework).
15. See generally JACK GOLDSMITH & TIM WU, WHO CONTROLS THE INTERNET? (2006) (describing the success of governments in controlling Internet access and content).
16. See OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN CHINA 17 (2009), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_China_2009.pdf.
17. see also U.S. DEP'T OF STATE, COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES-2007: CHINA (2008), available at http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100518.htm (describing China's human rights practices generally, including Internet censorship).
18. James Fallows, "The Connection Has Been Reset," ATL. MONTHLY, Mar. 2008, at 64, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200803/chinese-firewall.
19. OPENNET INITIATIVE, INDIA 4 (2007), http.://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/india.pdf.
20. see also Nart Villeneuve, Evasion Tactics, INDEX ON CENSORSHIP, Nov. 2007, at 71, 76.
21. See, e.g., Declan McCullagh, Google Excluding Controversial Sites, CNET NEWS, Oct. 23, 2002, http://www.news.com/2100-1023-963132.html.
22. See generally OPENNET INITIATIVE, EUROPE (2007), http://opennet.net/research/regions/Europe (describing filtering practices by category in European countries).
23. See Jennifer M. Urban & Laura Quilter, Efficient Process or "Chilling Effects" ? Takedown Notices Under Section 512 of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 22 SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. L.J. 621, 622 (2006).
24. See generally Google, Digital Millennium Copyright Act, http://www.google.com/dmca.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (describing policies for removing infringing sites or material).
25. See, e.g., Edward Cody, IOC Allows China to Limit Reporters' Access to Internet, WASH. POST, July 31, 2008, at A10 (describing Olympic journalists finding certain Web content blocked).
26. I.O.C. Member Accuses Committee of Betrayal on Censorship Issue, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 1, 2008, at D7 (same).
27. Andrew Jacobs, Beijing Games Denying Media Full Use of Web, N.Y. TIMES, July 31, 2008, at A1 (same).
28. See generally Anick Jesdanun, Is It Censorship or Protection?, WASH. POST, July 20, 2008, at A3 (describing censorship practices of various ISPs and Web sites).
29. Iran Launches Fresh Crackdown on Websites: Report, AFP, May 20, 2008, http.://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jgPmlgFydl8ifBE-OLsLXcyQYUgg.
30. JOHN KELLY & BRUCE ETLING, BERKMAN CTR. FOR INTERNET & SOC'Y, HARVARD UNIV. PUB. NO. 2008-01, MAPPING IRAN'S ONLINE PUBLIC: POLITICS AND CULTURE IN THE PERSIAN BLOGOSPHERE 21 (2008), available at http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/Kelly&Etling_Mapping_Irans_Online_Public_2008.pdf (noting researchers' "surprise that such a large proportion of that part of the blogosphere, which the regime must consider oppositional, is in fact visible within Iran").
31. Indonesia Seeks to Block YouTube over Anti-Koran Film, REUTERS, Apr. 2, 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/technologyNews/idUSSP23588120080402.
32. See, e.g., J. Mark Lytle, Internet Censorship Body Swings into Action, TECHRADAR UK, July 4, 2008, http://www.techradar.com/news/internet/web/internet-censorship-body-swings-into-action-415849 (describing filtering of sites accessible to minors via mobile phones).
33. Derek E. Bambauer, Filtering in Oz: Australia's Foray into Internet Censorship, 31 U. PA. J. INT'L L. (forthcoming 2009), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1319466.
34. Jacqui Cheng, New Zealand Moves Forward with Child Porn Filtering System, ARS TECHNICA, July 17, 2009, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2009/07/new-zealand-moves-forward-with-child-porn-filtering-system.ars.
35. Google in Deal with Brazil to Fight Child Porn, REUTERS, July 2, 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSN0237672120080702.
36. Filtering is information regulation via code-computer hardware and software-rather than law, though its technical measures are frequently backed by legal mandates. See LAWRENCE LESSIG, CODE: VERSION 2.0, at 24, 121-32 (2006) (describing modes of regulation).
37. See, e.g., Ann Bartow, Women in the Web of Secondary Copyright Liability and Internet Filtering, 32 N. KY. L. REV. 449, 481-87 (2005) (noting that filtering criteria reflect broader patterns of gender and social power).
38. John Perry Barlow, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace (1996), available at http://homes.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html.
39. But see Glenn Harlan Reynolds, Does Power Grow Out of the Barrel of a Modem? Some Thoughts on Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu's Who Controls the Internet?, 18 STAN. L. & POL'Y REV. 432, 433 (2007) (" Barlow's vision of a separate and untouchable cybersphere is increasingly unrealistic.").
40. Gilmore famously stated that "[t]he Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it." Philip Elmer-Dewitt, First Nation in Cyberspace, TIME, Dec. 6, 1993, at 62.
41. See Amitai Etzioni, On Protecting Children from Speech, 79 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 3, 50-52 (2004).
42. See Cheryl B. Preston, Making Family-Friendly Internet a Reality: The Internet Community Ports Act, 2007 BYU L. REV. 1471, 1483-85.
43. See David R. Johnson & David Post, Law and Borders-The Rise of Law in Cyberspace, 48 STAN. L. REV. 1367, 1391-1402 (1996).
44. Thomas Schultz, Carving Up the Internet: Jurisdiction, Legal Orders and the Private/Public International Law Interface, 19 EUR. J. INT'L L. 799, 806 (2008).
45. Kevin Werbach, The Centripetal Network: How the Internet Holds Itself Together, and the Forces Tearing It Apart, 42 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 343, 367 (2008).
46. The FCC, though, has punished ISPs that unilaterally filter, voting to require Comcast not to block customers' file-sharing traffic. E.g., John Dunbar, FCC Rules Against Comcast, WASH. POST, Aug. 2, 2008, at D2.
47. See Tim Wu, Has AT&T Lost Its Mind?, SLATE, Jan. 16, 2008, http://www.slate.com/id/2182152/.
48. Cheryl B. Preston, Zoning the Internet: A New Approach to Protecting Children Online, 2007 BYU L. REV. 1417, 1426.
49. See Jasa Santos, Qwest Blocks Access to Known Child Porn Sites, CASPER STAR-TRIBUNE, July 7, 2008, available at http://www.trib.com/articles/2008/07/08/news/wyoming/8d7 cbb0a6413fa718725747e007d4326.txt.
50. E.g., Rec.scuba, http://groups.google.com/group/rec.scuba/topics.
51. E.g., IAC Indian Astronomy Club, http://groups.google.com/group/indianastronomy club.
52. Cf. Jack M. Balkin, Beth S. Noveck & Kermit Roosevelt, Filtering the Internet-A Best Practices Model, in PROTECTING OUR CHILDREN ON THE INTERNET: TOWARDS A NEW CULTURE OF RESPONSIBILITY 199, 210 (Jens Waltermann & Marcel Machill eds., 2000) (noting the "wide cultural and ideological diversity" that filtering must reflect).
53. See generally Gordon Hull, Overblocking Autonomy: The Case of Mandatory Library Filtering Software, 42 CONTINENTAL PHIL. REV. 81 (2009), available at http://www.springerlink.
54. See, e.g., Adam Liptak, Unlike Others, U.S. Defends Freedom to Offend in Speech, N.Y. TIMES, June 12, 2008, at A1.
55. Frederick Schauer, The Exceptional First Amendment 23 (John F. Kennedy Sch. of Gov't Faculty Research Working Paper Group, Paper No. 05-021, 2005), available at http://web.hks.harvard.edu/publications/getFile.aspx?Id=167.
56. OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 6.
57. Martin Bright, BT Puts Block on Child Porn Sites, OBSERVER, June 6, 2004, at 7.
58. See Cybertip.ca, Cleanfeed Canada, http://cybertip.ca/app/en/cleanfeed (follow "Does the system filter legitimate, non-child pornography sites? (show)" hyperlink) (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (stating that Canada's Cleanfeed system blocks "access to Internet addresses specifically containing child pornography images").
59. Jake Adelstein, This Mob Is Big in Japan, WASH. POST, May 11, 2008, at B2 (noting that producing or distributing child pornography, while illegal, is rarely investigated).
60. See, e.g., Harrods Ltd. v. Dow Jones & Co., [2003] EWHC (QB) 1162, [38]-[39] (Eng.).
61. Demon v. Godfrey Internet Ltd., [2001] Q.B. 201, 204 (Eng.) (explaining that under English law, unlike in the United States, a defendant publisher has the burden of proving innocence). Protections for reporting on issues of public interest, however, have expanded recently. Jameel v. Wall St. J. Europe SPRL, [2006] UKHL 44 (U.K.).
62. Reynolds v. Times Newspapers Ltd., [2001] 2 AC 127, 176-77 (Eng.).
63. Compare Nat'l Socialist Party of Am. v. Village of Skokie, 432 U.S. 43, 43 (1978) (per curiam) (overturning an injunction prohibiting public display of "hatred against persons of Jewish faith or ancestry"), with Can. (Human Rights Comm'n) v. Taylor, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 892, 941 (Can.) (upholding a cease and desist order prohibiting telephone calls containing "statements denigrating the Jewish race or religion").
64. See, e.g., Yahoo Criticized in Case of Jailed Dissident, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 7, 2007, at C3.
65. OFFICE OF THE U.S. TRADE REPRESENTATIVE, 2008 SPECIAL 301 REP. 7, available at.
66. I thank Peter Hammer for this point.
67. See infra notes 181-85 and accompanying text.
68. See generally HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, COUNTRY SUMMARY: SAUDI ARABIA (2008), http://hrw.org/wr2k8/pdfs/saudiarabia.pdf (assessing the human rights climate in Saudi Arabia).
69. See generally JAMES S. FISHKIN, DEMOCRACY AND DELIBERATION (1991) (analyzing methods for combining political equality and deliberation).
70. DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS (Harold Hongju Koh & Ronald C. Slye eds., 1999) (seeking to reconcile human rights and political deliberation).
71. See Norman Daniels & James E. Sabin, Last Chance Therapies and Managed Care: Pluralism, Fair Procedures, and Legitimacy, HASTINGS CENTER REP., Sept.-Oct. 1998, at 27, 28.
72. But see Peter D. Jacobson, Richard A. Rettig & Wade M. Aubry, Litigating the Science of Breast Cancer Treatment, 32 J. HEALTH POL. POL'Y & L. 785, 790 (2007) (noting that randomized clinical trials showed transplants to be no more effective than standard chemotherapy).
73. Cf. Abigail Alliance for Better Access to Developmental Drugs v. Eschenbach, 485 F.3d 695, 711 (D.C. Cir. 2007), cert. denied, 128 S. Ct. 1069 (2008) (finding no constitutional right to access experimental therapies).
74. Norman Daniels & James Sabin, The Ethics of Accountability in Managed Care Reform, 17 HEALTH AFF. 50, 57 (1998).
75. See generally Richard Locke et al., Beyond Corporate Codes of Conduct: Work Organization and Labour Standards at Nike's Suppliers, 146 INT'L LABOR REV. 21, 22-24 (2007) (discussing Nike's efforts to enforce minimum labor standards in the wake of public pressure).
76. See Dara O'Rourke, Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Nongovernmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring, 31 POL'Y STUD. J. 1, 7-9 (2003).
77. See, e.g., James E. Snyder & Reva S. Bauch, Sexual Orientation Discrimination in the Workplace, CHI. BAR ASS'N REC., Nov. 2006, at 44, 45.
78. Julie Chi-Hye Suk, Equal by Comparison: Unsettling Assumptions of Antidiscrimination Law, 55 AM. J. COMP. L. 295, 302-03 (2007).
79. Archon Fung, Dara O'Rourke & Charles Sabel, Realizing Labor Standards: How Transparency, Competition, and Sanctions Could Improve Working Conditions Worldwide, BOSTON REV., Feb.-Mar. 2001, at 4 [hereinafter Fung et al., Realizing Labor Standards].
80. see also Archon Fung, Deliberative Democracy and International Labor Standards, 16 GOVERNANCE: INT'L J. POL'Y, ADMIN., & INSTITUTIONS 51, 60 (2003) [hereinafter Fung, Deliberative Democracy].
81. See OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN SAUDI ARABIA 3-5 (2009), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_SaudiArabia_2009.pdf.
82. See Internet.gov.sa, Content Filtering in Saudi Arabia, http://www.internet.gov.sa/learn-the-web/guides/content-filtering-in-saudi-arabia (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
83. Internet Servs. Unit, King Abdulaziz City for Sci. & Tech., Introduction to Content Filtering, http://www.isu.net.sa/saudi-internet/contenet-filtring/filtring.htm (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
84. Arab Media: Saudi Internet Rules, Council of Ministers Resolution (Feb. 12, 2001), http://www.al-bab.com/media/docs/saudi.htm.
85. See Internet.gov.sa, New Block Page, http://www.internet.gov.sa/news/new-block-page/view?set_language=en (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (describing and linking to the block page that a user will receive when trying to reach a filtered site).
86. See generally Alfred Hermida, Saudis Block 2,000 Websites, BBC NEWS, July 31, 2002, http.://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/2153312.stm (discussing Saudi Arabia's Internet filtering practice).
87. See, e.g., Access to Information and Media Control in the People's Republic of China: Hearing Before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Commission, 110th Cong. 77 (2006) (statement of Dr. Ronald J. Deibert, Associate Professor of Political Science and Director of Citizen Lab, University of Toronto), available at http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2008hearings/transcripts/08_06_18trans/08_06_18_trans.pdf (" Official acknowledgement of these practices has been inconsistent at best, deceitful at worst.").
88. Declan McCullagh, China: We Don't Censor the Internet. Really, CNET NEWS, Oct. 31, 2006, http://news.cnet.com/China-We-dont-censor-the-Internet.-Really/2100-1028_3-6130970.html (" In China, we don't have software blocking Internet sites.. .. We do not have restrictions at all." (quoting a Chinese government official)).
89. OpenNet Initiative, Probing Chinese Search Engine Filtering (Aug. 19, 2004), http://opennet.net/bulletins/005/.
90. Nart Villeneuve, Perspectives on Transparency (June 26, 2008), http://www.nartv.org/2008/06/26/perspectives-on-transparency/.
91. See, e.g., CISCO SYSTEMS, CISCO SECURITY APPLIANCE COMMAND LINE CONFIGURATION GUIDE, VERSION 7.2-CONFIGURING HTTP FILTERING (2008), http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/security/asa/asa72/configuration/guide/filter.html#wp1042538 (explaining how to configure HTTP filtering so that users are redirected to a block page when trying to reach a blocked site).
92. Internet Code of Practice § 4(1) (1997) (Singapore), available at http://www.mda.gov.sg/wms.file/mobj/mobj.981.internet_code_of_practice.pdf.
93. Politics a No-No but Porn OK, AUSTRALIAN, Aug. 15, 2006, at 33 (quoting Vietnamese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Le Dung).
94. Cf. Erik Eckholm, Abuses Are Found in Online Sales of Medication, N.Y. TIMES, July 9, 2008, at A21 (discussing possible solutions to the problem that "anyone of any age can obtain dangerous and addictive prescription drugs with the click of a mouse," including requiring certification for online pharmacies).
95. Cf. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the Protection of Consumers, in Particular Minors, in Respect of the Use of Video Games, at 8 COM (2008) 207 final (Apr. 22, 2008), available at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0207:FIN:EN:PDF (recommending a "swift and effective mechanism for age verification" to protect minors from harmful online video games).
96. See, e.g., Doreen Carvajal, French Legislators Approve Law Against Web Sites Encouraging Anorexia and Bulimia, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 15, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/15/world/europe/15iht-paris.4.12015888.html.
97. cf. Thomas Catan, Online Anorexia Sites Shut Down Amid Claims They Glorify Starvation, TIMES ONLINE, Nov. 22, 2007, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article2916356.ece (discussing Spain's decision to shut down four pro-anorexia websites after receiving a complaint that they were endangering the lives of teenage girls).
98. OPENNET INITIATIVE, THAILAND 4 (2007), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/thailand.pdf.
99. OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN IRAN 9 (2009), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_Iran_2009.pdf.
100. OPENNET INITIATIVE, TUNISIA 3 (2007), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/tunisia.pdf (quoting Art. 9, DECREE OF THE MINISTRY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS OF MARCH 22, 1997, and Art. 9, CODE DE LA PRESSE (translated by Harvard Law School Langdell Library)).
101. Tunisia displays a "404 Not Found" error page (stating that the site does not exist or cannot be found) rather than a "403 Forbidden" page (stating that the user may not reach the requested site). Id.; Nart Villeneuve, Tunisia: Internet Filtering (June 7, 2005), http://www.nartv.org/2005/06/07/tunisia-internet-filtering/.
102. See http://search.help.cn.yahoo.com/h3_9.html.
103. Nart Villeneuve, Search Monitor Project: Toward a Measure of Transparency 7 (Citizen Lab, Occasional Paper No. 1, 2008), http://www.citizenlab.org/papers/searchmonitor.pdf.
104. Iran's Press Law of 2000, for example, prohibits insulting Islam, attacking the Leader of the Iranian Revolution, or quoting articles from groups opposing Islam. OPENNET INITIATIVE.
105. see also, e.g., Tribunal de Grande Instance [T.G.I.] [ordinary court of original jurisdiction] Paris, Nov. 20, 2000, Ordonnance de référé (Order for Summary Judgment), No. RG 00/05308, at 3, available at http://www.juriscom.net/txt/jurisfr/cti/tgiparis20001120.pdf (requiring Yahoo!'s French subsidiary to disable access to auctions of Nazi memorabilia).
106. Arts. 23-24, Law on Press Freedom, J.O., July 29, 1881, at 4202, available at http://www.lexinter.net/lois/provocation_aux_crimes_et_delits.htm (translation by author).
107. Ben Blanchard, China Won't Guarantee Web Freedom over Olympics, REUTERS, May 8, 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/GCA-Olympics/idUSPEK14583520080508 (quoting Technology Minister Wan Gang).
108. Mark O'Neill, Beijing Closes Net Around Web Sites, S. CHINA MORNING POST, Oct. 4, 2000, at 10.
109. Melinda Liu & Quindlen Krovatin, Big Brother Is Talking, NEWSWEEK (PACIFIC ED.), Oct. 17, 2005, at 20 (estimating thirty-eight different regulations); Cong.-Executive Comm'n on China, Agencies Responsible for Censorship in China, http://www.cecc.gov/pages/virtualAcad/exp/expcensors.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (listing nine governmental agencies).
110. See, e.g., Clive Thompson, Google's China Problem (and China's Google Problem), N.Y. TIMES MAG., Apr. 23, 2006, at 64 (describing Chinese pressure to censor and Google's acquiescence).
111. Criminal Code, R.S.C., ch. C-46, § 163.1(1) (1985) (Can.) (defining "child pornography").
112. See McAfee, 4.x Database: Secure Computing, http://www.securecomputing.com/index.cfm?skey=86#categories (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (defining nudity as "non-pornographic images of the bare human body").
113. See, e.g., Xeni Jardin, BoingBoing Banned in UAE, Qatar, Elsewhere, BOING BOING, Feb. 27, 2006, http://www.boingboing.net/2006/02/27/boingboing-banned-in.html (describing the blocking of the blog Boing Boing because the filtering software SmartFilter classified it as "nudity" even though less than 1 percent of posts contain nudity).
114. Inera Safargalieva, Uzbek Media and the Authorities-A Strange Relationship, in Fifth Central Asian Media Conference, Sep. 17-18, 2003, OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, Central Asia-In Defence of the Future 259, 263, available at http://www.osce.org/publications/rfm/2004/02/12243_101_en.pdf.
115. U.S. DEP'T OF STATE, BUREAU OF DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS & LABOR, VIETNAM: 2007 COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES (2008), available at http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100543.htm (describing Vietnam's efforts to restrict publication of alternative political viewpoints and its Internet censorship practices).
116. OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES IN.
117. Ctr. for Democracy & Tech. v. Pappert, 337 F. Supp. 2d 606, 633-34, 650-52, 655 (E.D. Pa. 2004).
118. See generally Nart Villeneuve, Technical Ways to Get Round Censorship, in REPORTERS WITHOUT BORDERS, HANDBOOK FOR BLOGGERS AND CYBER-DISSIDENTS (2005), available at http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/handbook_bloggers_cyberdissidents-GB.pdf (providing a list of filter-circumvention techniques and their associated advantages and disadvantages).
119. Hiawatha Bray, Beating Censorship on the Internet, BOSTON GLOBE, Feb. 20, 2006, at A10 (discussing the use of networks of proxies to obfuscate web-surfers' computer identities).
120. OPENNET INITIATIVE, SINGAPORE 1 (2007), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/singapore.pdf.
121. David Kravets, WikiLeaks Exposes Australian Blacklist, WIRED, Mar. 19, 2009, http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2009/03/wikileaks-expos/.
122. The list is available at http://www.wikileaks.org/wiki/Australian_government_secret_ACMA_internet_censorship_blacklist%2C_18_Mar_2009.
123. Tim Richardson, Cleanfeed Working Overtime, Says BT, REGISTER, Feb. 7, 2006, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/02/07/bt_cleanfeed_iwf/.
124. Britain's other ISPs "voluntarily" adopted Cleanfeed by the end of 2007, as demanded by UK Home Office Minister Vernon Croaker. Frank Fisher, Caught in the Web, GUARDIAN, Jan. 17, 2008, http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jan/17/caughtintheweb.
125. But see Richard Clayton, Failures in a Hybrid Content Blocking System, in PRIVACY ENHANCING TECHNOLOGIES: 5TH INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP PET 2005, at 78, 82-89 (George Danezis & David Martin eds., 2006) (describing technical problems with Cleanfeed and demonstrating how it can be used to create an index of child pornography sites).
126. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, COUNTRY PROFILES: EGYPT (2005), http://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/mena1105/4.htm.
127. see also Sarah El Sirgany, Al-Ahram Reverses Internet Block on Blogs, DAILY NEWS EGYPT, Aug. 15, 2006, available at http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2615.
128. See, e.g., OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN VIETNAM IN 2005-2006: A COUNTRY STUDY app. 2 (2006), http://opennet.net/studies/vietnam (displaying which sites on ONI's "[G]lobal List" were blocked in Vietnam); see also id. § 3.A (describing testing methodology).
129. See, e.g., Paul Wiseman, In China, a Battle over Web Censorship, USA TODAY, Apr. 23, 2008, at 1A (describing searches for specific banned keywords on the Internet in China); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, CHINA: WORLD REPORT 2007 (2007), http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/china14867.htm (describing China's official reaction to Falun Gong).
130. see also REPORTERS SANS FRONTIÈRES, INTERNET ENEMIES 19-20 (2009), http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies_2009_2_-3.pdf (providing a list of specific sites censored within Syria).
131. See infra note 319.
132. See, e.g., OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN YEMEN 4 (2009), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_Yemen_2009.pdf.
133. Michael Best and Keegan Wade propose a quantitative measure of how democratic a country's Internet regulation is.
134. Michael L. Best & Keegan W. Wade, Democratic and Anti-Democratic Regulators of the Internet: A Framework, 23 INFO. SOC'Y 405, 410 (2007).
135. See, e.g., David Nimmer, A Riff on Fair Use in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 148 U. PA. L. REV. 673, 739-40 (2000).
136. Pamela Samuelson, Intellectual Property and the Digital Economy: Why the Anti-Circumvention Regulations Need to Be Revised, 14 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 519, 534-37 (1999).
137. But see Timothy K. Armstrong, Digital Rights Management and the Process of Fair Use, 20 HARV. J.L. & TECH. 49, 67 (2006).
138. Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860 (1998) (codified in scattered sections of 17 U.S.C.).
139. See, e.g., Chris Sherman, Google Makes Scientology Infringement Demand Public, SEARCH ENGINE WATCH, Apr. 15, 2002, http://searchenginewatch.com/2159691.
140. Google Asked to Delist Scientology Critics (#1), CHILLING EFFECTS CLEARINGHOUSE, Mar. 8, 2002, http://www.chillingeffects.org/dmca512/notice.cgi?NoticeID=232.
141. 17 U.S.C. §§ 512(c)-(d) (2006).
142. France Blocks Online Child Porn, Terrorism, Racism, USA TODAY, June 10, 2008, available at http://www.usatoday.com/tech/world/2008-06-10-france-online-porn_N.htm.
143. U.S., France Move to Block Online Child Pornography, CBC NEWS, June 10, 2008, http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/06/10/isps-porn-block.html.
144. See, e.g., Seth Mydans, Ousted Premier Is Set to Return to Thailand, Officials Say, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 27, 2008, at A4 (discussing the return of the former Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra after being ousted in a 2006 military coup).
145. C.J. Hinke, Censoring Free Speech in Thailand, GLOBAL VOICES ADVOCACY, May 17, 2008, http://advocacy.globalvoicesonline.org/2008/05/17/censoring-free-speech-in-thailand/.
146. See generally Andreas Schedler, The Menu of Manipulation, 13 J. DEMOCRACY 36 (2002) (" [Transitions from authoritarian rule] have given birth to new forms of authoritarianism that do not fit into our classic categories of one party, military, or personal dictatorship. They have produced regimes that hold elections and tolerate some pluralism and interparty competition, but at the same time violate minimal democratic norms so severely and systematically that it makes no sense to classify them as democracies, however qualified.").
147. See, e.g., Clifford J. Levy, Putin Aide Secures His Assured Victory in Russian Vote, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 3, 2008, at A3 (" Throughout the campaign, the Kremlin, having essentially prevented any meaningful opposition, focused on getting enough people to the polls to allow the vote to be depicted as legitimate.").
148. Russia Goes to the Polls, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, Nov. 29, 2007, http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/11/29/russia17440.htm (noting that Russian citizens will be going to the polls "in a deteriorating human rights situation where fundamental freedoms vital to free and fair elections are curtailed").
149. See, e.g., Fabiola Sanchez, Venezuela's Chavez Pushes Through 26 Decrees, USA TODAY, Aug. 5, 2008, available at http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2008-08-05-2755377644_x.htm (reporting that the new laws enacted by presidential decree aim to move Venezuela toward a "centralized, state-run economic system").
150. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, ALL OVER AGAIN: HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES AND FLAWED ELECTORAL CONDITIONS IN ZIMBABWE'S COMING GENERAL ELECTIONS (2008), http://hrw.org/reports/2008/zimbabwe0308/(noting that Zimbabwe's "deeply flawed and rushed electoral process," and the government's "continuing violations of civil and political rights" make it unlikely that upcoming elections "will help Zimbabwe either establish democracy or bring an end to the country's ongoing political crisis").
151. Celia W. Dugger & Barry Bearak, Mugabe Rival Quits Zimbabwe Runoff, Citing Attacks, N.Y. TIMES, June 23, 2008, at A1 (" It remains to be seen whether southern Africa's leaders will collectively censure [the incumbent president] or take tougher steps, such as economic sanctions, to isolate his government. They have never done so before, despite [previous] elections. .. that were widely believed to have been marked by rigging and fraud, but that his regional peers declared legitimate.").
152. Linda Rosencrance, ISPs Join to Block Child Porn, PC WORLD, July 13, 2008, http://www.pcworld.com/article/148295/isps_join_to_block_child_porn.html.
153. Comcast was the second-largest U.S. ISP for the third quarter of 2008. Alex Goldman, Top 23 U.S. ISPs by Subscriber: Q3 2008, ISP-PLANET, Dec. 2, 2008, http://www.isp-planet.com/research/rankings/usa.html.
154. Peter Grier, ISPs Take Major Step in Curbing Child Porn, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, June 11, 2008, at 1, available at http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0611/p01s09-usgn.html.
155. See, e.g., Marguerite Reardon, California Pols Ask ISPs to Block Child Porn, CNET NEWS, June 20, 2008, http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9973966-7.html.
156. See FREEDOM HOUSE, SAUDI ARABIA: 2007 (2007), http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2007&country=7265 (" Saudi Arabia organized elections for municipal councils in the first half of 2004, giving Saudi men a limited opportunity to select some of their leaders at the local level.").
157. Robin Miller, Meet Saudi Arabia's Most Famous Computer Expert, LINUX.COM, Jan. 14, 2004, http://linux.com/archive/articles/33695.
158. ABDULAZIZ HAMAD AL-ZOMAN, THE INTERNET IN SAUDI ARABIA (TECHNICAL VIEW) 26-28 (2001), available at http://www.isu.net.sa/library/CETEM2001-Zoman.pdf.
159. Disposizioni per la Formazione del Bilancio Annuale e Pluriennale dello Stato (Legge Finanziaria 2006) [Orders Concerning the Formation of the Annual and Multi-Year State Budgets (Budget Law 2006)], Dec. 29, 2005, Gazz. Uff. No. 302, available at http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/05266l.htm.
160. Andrea Glorioso, Betting Websites Are Blocked in Italy, EUR. DIGITAL RIGHTS, June 21, 2006, http://www.edri.org/edrigram/number4.12/italybetting.
161. Elenco di Cui al Decreto del Direttore Generale di AAMS 7 febbraio 2006 Relativo alla Rimozione dei Casi di Offerta in Assenza di Autorizzazione, Attraverso Rete Telematica, di Giochi "[List Pursuant to the Decree of the Director General of the AAMS (Autonomous State Monopolies Administration on Technical Regulations) of 7 February 2006 on the Prohibition of Gaming or Betting Through the Internet Without Authorization]", AMMINISTRAZIONE AUTONOMA DEI MONOPOLI DI STATO, http://www.aams.it/site.php?page= 20060213093814964& op=download.
162. Media Development Authority Act, ch. 172 (2003) (Singapore), available at http://agcvldb4.agc.gov.sg/non_version/cgi-bin/cgi_retrieve.pl?actno=REVED-172&doctitle=MEDIA%20DEVELOPMENT%20AUTHORITY%20OF%20SINGAPORE%20ACT%0A&date=latest&method=part.
163. Broadcasting Act, ch. 28 (2002) (Singapore), available at http://agcvldb4.agc.gov.sg/non_version/cgi-bin/cgi_retrieve.pl?actno=REVED-28&doctitle=BROADCASTING%20ACT%0A&date=latest&method=part.
164. Broadcasting (Class Licence) Notification, Broadcasting Act, ch. 28, § 9 (1996) (Singapore), available at http://www.mda.gov.sg/wms.file/mobj/mobj.487.ClassLicence.pdf.
165. Internet Code of Practice (1997) (Singapore).
166. See Singapore Bans Gay Website, SYDNEY MORNING HERALD, Oct. 28, 2005, available at http://www.smh.com.au/news/breaking/singapore-bans-gay-website/2005/10/28/1130400335787 .html (reporting that the Media Development Authority banned a gay Web site "after receiving complaints about the promotion of promiscuous homosexual behaviour and recruitment of underage boys for sex and nude photography. ... [and] [i]nvestigations showed the two sites breached the Internet Code of Practice, which governs the content of websites in Singapore").
167. See, e.g., State Admin. of Radio, Film, and Television, Provisions on the Administration of Internet Video and Audio Programming Services, Dec. 20, 2007, available at http://www.chinasarft.gov.cn/articles/2007/12/29/20071229134709730745.html.
168. Ministry of Info. Indus. & Gen. Admin. of Press and Publ'n, Interim Provisions on the Administration of Internet Publication, June 27, 2002, http://www.lawinfochina.com/law/displayModeTwo.asp?id=2393.
169. Ministry of Info. Indus., Measures for the Administration of Internet Information Services, CHINA TRADE SERVICES, Sept. 25, 2000, available at http://tradeinservices.mofcom.gov.cn/en/b/2000-09-25/18565.shtml.
170. Internet Soc'y of China, Public Pledge of Self-Regulation and Professional Ethics for China Internet Industry (July 19, 2002), http://www.isc.org.cn/20020417/ca102762.htm (noting that the public pledge was drafted in order "to establish a self-regulating mechanism for China's Internet Industry, improve the conduct of Internet Industry Participants and promote and ensure the sound development of the Internet Industry consistent with the law").
171. See generally Kristen Farrell, The Big Mamas Are Watching: China's Censorship of the Internet and the Strain on the Freedom of Expression, 15 MICH. ST. J. INT'L L. 577, 590 (2007) (" U.S.-based companies continue to capitulate on the new Chinese restrictions on speech. Google agreed to exclude from a list of links publications that the Chinese government finds objectionable. Microsoft sends an error message to Internet users in China who use its search engine for words such as democracy, freedom, human rights, or demonstration.").
172. Lokman Tsui, Internet in China: Big Mama Is Watching You 27 (July 2001) (unpublished M.A. thesis, Univ. of Leiden), available at http://www.lokman.nu/thesis/010717-thesis.pdf (" The basic principle behind the concept of internet regulation in China is 'one is responsible for what one publishes.' As a result, internet-related companies in China practice a high degree of self-censorship. .. [which] is necessary in order to gain the trust and cooperation of the government.").
173. Edward Cody, Dog Owner Takes on China's Web Censors, WASH. POST, Dec. 26, 2007, at A18.
174. Deborah Fallows, Few in China Complain About Internet Controls, PEW INTERNET & AM. LIFE PROJECT, Mar. 27, 2008, http://pewresearch.org/pubs/776/china-internet (reporting that 80 percent of respondents support Internet regulation, and that 85 percent believe that the government should undertake it).
175. Ctr. for Democracy & Tech. v. Pappert, 337 F. Supp. 2d 606, 610-11, 662 (E.D. Pa 2004).
176. Rafal Rohozinski & Vesselina Haralampieva, OpenNet Initiative, Commonwealth of Independent States, http://opennet.net/research/regions/cis (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
177. OPENNET INITIATIVE, OMAN 3 (2007), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_Oman_2007.pdf.
178. OPENNET INITIATIVE, PAKISTAN 4 (2007), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/pakistan.pdf.
179. ALEXANDER M. BICKEL, THE LEAST DANGEROUS BRANCH 16-23 (1962).
180. JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST: A THEORY OF JUDICIAL REVIEW 73-.
181. Jeremy Waldron, The Core of the Case Against Judicial Review, 115 YALE L.J. 1346, 1353 (2006).
182. See, e.g., Laurence H. Tribe, The Puzzling Persistence of Process-Based Constitutional Theories, 89 YALE L.J. 1063, 1079-80 (1980).
183. See, e.g., United States v. Carolene Prods. Co., 304 U.S. 144, 152-53 n.4 (1938).
184. See, e.g., Nart Villeneuve, Degrading Transparency: Comparing Google, Yahoo and Microsoft (Jan. 25, 2008), http://www.nartv.org/2008/01/25/degrading-transparency-comparing-google-yahoo-and-microsoft/.
185. Geoffrey A. Fowler, Glued Geographic, WALL ST. J., June 4, 2008, http://blogs.wsj.com/chinajournal/2008/06/04/glued-geographic/.
186. See, e.g., Clifford J. Levy, It Isn't Magic: Putin Opponents Vanish From TV, N.Y. TIMES, June 3, 2008, at A1.
187. RICHARD H. THALER & CASS R. SUNSTEIN, NUDGE (2008) (discussing how the design of "choice environments" can lead to optimal decisions).
188. Derek E. Bambauer, Shopping Badly: Cognitive Biases, Communications, and the Fallacy of the Marketplace of Ideas, 77 COLO. L. REV. 649 (2006) (arguing that perceptual biases in information accumulation and processing undercut traditional decisionmaking models).
189. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 630 (1919) (Holmes, J., dissenting).
190. FREEDOM HOUSE, SURVEY METHODOLOGY 3-4 (2008), available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop08/Methodology2008.pdf.
191. Open Directory Project Home Page, http://www.dmoz.org/(last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
192. See, e.g., TRANSPARENCY INT'L, BRIBE PAYERS INDEX 2006, at 3-5 (2006), available at http://www.transparency.org/content/download/9757/71853/version/1/file/BPI_2006_Analysis_Report_270906_FINAL.pdf.
193. Transparency Int'l, Corruption Perceptions Index 2007, http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
194. See, e.g., JAMES GWARTNEY ET AL., ECONOMIC FREEDOM OF THE WORLD: 2007 ANNUAL REPORT 3-4 (2007), available at http://www.freetheworld.com/2007/EFW2007 BOOK2.pdf.
195. Heritage Found. & Wall St. J., 2009 Index of Economic Freedom, http://www.heritage.org/index/Download.aspx (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
196. See, e.g., Richard M. Locke, Fei Qin & Alberto Brause, Does Monitoring Improve Labor Standards?: Lessons from Nike, 61 INDUS. & LABOR RELATIONS REV. 3, 4 (2007).
197. Nike, Audit Tools, http://www.nikebiz.com/nikeresponsibility/#workers-factories/audit_tools (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (providing the tools and measures that Nike uses to determine factory compliance with its labor standards).
198. See, e.g., ADVANCE, SUSTAINABLE VALUE OF EUROPEAN INDUSTRY: A VALUE-BASED ANALYSIS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF EUROPEAN MANUFACTURING COMPANIES 6 (2006), available at http://www.advance-project.org/downloads/advancesurveyfull version.pdf.
199. Global Reporting Initiative, Reporting Framework Overview, http://www.globalreporting.org/ReportingFramework/ReportingFrameworkOverview/(last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
200. See, e.g., BRIDGES.ORG, E-READINESS ASSESSMENT TOOLS COMPARISON 1-3 (2005).
201. INFODEV, E-READY FOR WHAT? E-READINESS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: CURRENT.
202. See, e.g., Robert M. Stern, Labor Standards and Trade, in NEW DIRECTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC LAW 425, 425-36 (Marco Bronckers & Reinhard Quick eds., 2000).
203. JOHANN GRAF LAMBSDORFF, THE METHODOLOGY OF THE CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2007, at 2-9 (2007), available at http://www.transparency.org/content/download/23965/358196.
204. Cf. ROBERTA ROMANO, THE ADVANTAGE OF COMPETITIVE FEDERALISM FOR SECURITIES REGULATION 1-12 (2002) (making a similar argument for competition in securities regulation)
205. See generally Steven M. Davidoff, Regulating Listings in a Global Market, 86 N.C.L. REV. 89 (2007) (discussing challenges of multiple regulatory standards in securities listings).
206. See, e.g., Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay & Massimo Mastruzzi, Governance Matters VII: Aggregate and Individual Governance Indicators 1996-2007, at 7-11, 28, 37 (World Bank Policy Research, Working Paper No. 4654, 2008), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1148386.
207. See FREEDOM HOUSE, COUNTRIES AT THE CROSSROADS 2007: SURVEY.
208. See Global Internet Freedom: Corporate Responsibility and the Rule of Law: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on Human Rights and the Law of the S. Judiciary Comm., 110th Cong. 9 (2008) (statement of Aryind Ganesan, Deputy General Counsel, Google, Inc.), available at http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/20/usint18894.htm (describing an effort by technology companies, human rights organizations, and scholars "to develop a voluntary code of conduct and process of enforcement to try to curtail censorship and protect user information," but noting "almost 18 months later, it would be great to tell you that a code is finalized and a system is in place to address these problems, but instead, we are still negotiating, and in the meantime, internet users are no safer, and censorship continues").
209. Global Network Initiative, Participants, http://www.globalnetworkinitiative.org/participants/index.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
210. Global Network Initiative, Principles, http://www.globalnetworkinitiative.org/principles/index.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
211. Global Network Initiative, Governance, Accountability & Learning Framework, http://www.globalnetworkinitiative.org/governanceframework/index.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
212. Bobbie Johnson, Amnesty Criticises Global Network Initiative for Online Freedom of Speech, GUARDIAN, Oct. 30, 2008, http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2008/oct/30/amnesty-global-network-initiative.
213. See Global Network Initiative, Implementation Guidelines, http://www.globalnetwork initiative.org/implementationguidelines/index.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
214. See discussion infra Part III.C. If China's filtering were rated as illegitimate by the new metric, and transactions by technology companies enabling China's censorship attracted heightened scrutiny, Microsoft and Google might be pressured to reduce such business, and hence lose revenue.
215. Wikipedia, for example, has frequently limited edits to its entry on George W. Bush for this reason. See Ulrik Brandes & Jurgen Lerner, Visual Analysis of Controversy in User-Generated Encyclopedias, 7 INFO. VISUALIZATION 34, 36, 46 (2008).
216. Stacy Schiff, Know It All: Can Wikipedia Conquer Expertise?, NEW YORKER, July 31, 2006, at 36, 42, available at http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/31/060731fa_fact.
217. See, e.g., Paul Adams, In Response to User Demand, Pidgin Forks, WEBMONKEY, Apr. 22, 2008, http://webmonkey.com/blog/In_Response_to_User_Demand__Pidgin_Forks (announcing that Pidgin, an open source instant-messaging software, has "forked").
218. cf. Jill Coffin, Analysis of Open Source Principles in Diverse Collaborative Communities, FIRST MONDAY, June 5, 2006, http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1342/1262 (analogizing the Burning Man community in the Black Rock Desert of Nevada to an open source project and describing its eventual "fork").
219. See Laura Chappell, Migrating to IP, NETWORK WORLD FUSION, Oct. 18, 1999, http://www.networkworld.com/news/1999/1018feat.html (describing the "inevitable upgrade to TCP/IP" from Novell's IPX/SPX, the previously dominant network protocol).
220. See Jefferson Graham, The Search Engine That Could, USA TODAY, Aug. 26, 2003, at 1D, available at http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2003-08-25-google_x.htm.
221. See S. BRADNER, THE INTERNET STANDARDS PROCESS - REVISION 3 (1996), ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/bcp/bcp9.txt (noting the Internet relies on "voluntary adherence to open protocols and procedures").
222. See, e.g., P. Mockapetris, Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities [RFC 1034] (Nov. 1987), http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1034.txt?number=1034 (replacing RFC 973).
223. See generally Yochai Benkler, Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm, 112 YALE L.J. 369 (2002) (describing the emerging "phenomenon of large- and medium-scale collaborations among individuals that are organized without markets or managerial hierarchies" on the Internet).
224. Jonathan Zittrain, The Generative Internet, 119 HARV. L. REV. 1974, 1987-96 (2006) (arguing that Internet reforms should be tailored to minimize their "impact on generativity").
225. See generally David Bandurski, Pulling the Strings of China's Internet, 171 FAR E. ECON. REV. 18 (2007) (describing how Internet censorship technology is enabling the Chinese government to use the Beijing Association of Online Media as its agent to monitor and filter Internet content).
226. OPENNET INITIATIVE, INTERNET FILTERING IN BURMA IN 2005: A COUNTRY STUDY 4-5, 18, 24 (2005), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_Burma_Country_Study.pdf.
227. see also Nart Villeneuve, Fortinet for Who? (Oct. 13, 2005), http://www.nartv.org/2005/10/13/fortinet-for-who/.
228. See ETHAN GUTMANN, LOSING THE NEW CHINA 130-32, 158-60 (2004).
229. CISCO SYS., OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC SECURITY SECTOR 57-58 (2002) (on file with the Duke Law Journal) (describing the Chinese government's goal to "[c]ombat 'Falun Gong' evil religion and other hostiles" and concomitant Cisco business opportunities in technical training, security, and operational maintenance).
230. Glenn Kessler, Cisco File Raises Censorship Concerns, WASH. POST, May 20, 2008, at D1.
231. Ben Arnoldy, When US-Made "Censorware" Ends Up in Iron Fists, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, Oct. 10, 2007, at 1, available at http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1010/p01s01-ussc.html.
232. See generally OPENNET INITIATIVE, SUDAN (2009), http.://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_Sudan_2009.pdf (describing Internet filtering technology and its usage in Sudan).
233. Xeni Jardin, Exporting Censorship, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 9, 2006, at A23.
234. Microsoft Censors Chinese Blogs, BBC NEWS, June 14, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4088702.stm.
235. Nate Anderson, Sen.: Iron Curtain Swapped for Virtual Curtain of Censorship, ARS TECHNICA, May 20, 2008, http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20080520-sen-iron-curtain-swapped-for-virtual-curtain-of-censorship.html.
236. Anne Broache, Politicos Attack Tech Firms over China, CNET NEWS, Feb. 1, 2006, http://news.cnet.com/2100-1028_3-6033976.html.
237. See Global Online Freedom Act of 2007, H.R. 275, 110th Cong. (2007).
238. See, e.g., Verena Dobnik, 13 Nations Denounced for Web Censorship, MSNBC.COM, Nov. 8, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15621193.
239. See, e.g., Foster Klug, U.S. Tech Companies Urge Washington to Confront China on Internet Censorship, PITTSBURGH POST-GAZETTE, Feb. 4 2007, http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07035/758377-96.stm.
240. Tim Wu, The World Trade Law of Censorship and Internet Filtering, 7 CHI. J. INT'L LAW 263, 276-80 (2006) (analyzing whether internet filtering violates trade laws).
241. See, e.g., Dodge v. Ford Motor Co., 170 N.W. 668, 682 (Mich. 1919) (holding that corporations are organized for the purpose of shareholder profit, and that directors must pursue this goal).
242. Stephen M. Bainbridge, Director Primacy: The Means and Ends of Corporate Governance, 97 NW. U. L. REV. 547, 548-49 (2003).
243. See infra note 255 and accompanying text.
244. Rebecca MacKinnon, America's Online Censors, NATION, Feb. 24, 2006, http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060313/mackinnon (noting that Microsoft's instant messaging and Hotmail services are "hosted on servers outside of China so it doesn't have to hand over data").
245. Sumner Lemon, Microsoft Restores Hotmail Service in China, INFOWORLD, May 22, 2006, http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/05/22/78548_HNhotmailchina_1.html (discussing recent Hotmail problems in China).
246. Rebecca MacKinnon et al., "Race to the Bottom" : Corporate Complicity in Chinese Internet Censorship: How Multinational Internet Companies Assist Government Censorship in China, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, Aug. 2006, at 1, 31, available at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/china0806/china0806web.pdf (discussing Yahoo's role in the convictions of four Chinese dissidents).
247. Yahoo Criticized in Case of Jailed Dissident, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 7, 2007, at C3 (noting that Democratic Representative Tom Lantos of California criticized Yahoo! CEO Jerry Yang and General Counsel Michael J. Callahan during a House Foreign Affairs Committee meeting).
248. Sumner Lemon, Microsoft's Hotmail Problems Persist in China, COMPUTERWORLD, May 18, 2006, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9000605/Microsoft_s_Hotmail_problems_persist_in_China (discussing how one Chinese Hotmail user switched to Google's Gmail service because of Hotmail's technical problems).
249. Calum MacLeod, China Vaults Past USA in Internet Users, USA TODAY, Apr. 21, 2008, at 1A, available at http://www.usatoday.com/tech/world/2008-04-20-Internetusers_N.htm.
250. Google, Corporate Information, Our Philosophy, http://www.google.com/corporate/tenthings.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
251. Press Release, Yahoo!, Yahoo!: Our Beliefs as a Global Internet Company (Feb. 13, 2006), available at http://yhoo.client.shareholder.com/press/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=187 401.
252. See, e.g., Peter K. Yu, Bridging the Digital Divide: Equality in the Information Age: Forward, 20 CARDOZO ARTS & ENT. L.J. 1, 38 (2002) (discussing News Corporation's agreement to censor a controversial book and television channel in order to do business in China).
253. See, e.g., Nart Villeneuve, 6/4 & Censorware (June 4, 2004), http://www.nartv.org/2004/06/04/64-censorware (describing Filter King and Net Police 110 products).
254. See, e.g., Reporters Without Borders, Joint Investor Statement on Freedom of Expression and the Internet, http.://arabia.reporters-sans-frontieres.org/fonds-investissement-en.php3 (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (listing thirty-five investments firms that signed the statement of principles).
255. See, e.g., Press Release, Boston Common Asset Mgmt. LLC, Human Rights and Internet Fragmentation Proposal Receives Record Shareholder Support (Nov. 15, 2006), http://www.bostoncommonasset.com/news/cisco-agm-111506.html.
256. See, e.g., Google, Definitive Proxy Statement (Schedule 14A), Proposal Number 4, (Mar. 25, 2008) (listing a shareholder proposal calling on Google "not [to] engage in pro-active censorship").
257. See, e.g., Google, Definitive Proxy Statement (Schedule 14A), Proposal Number 5 (Apr. 6, 2007) (proposing the establishment of a Board Committee on Human Rights "authorized to review the implications of company policies, above and beyond matters of legal compliance, for the human rights of individuals in the US and worldwide").
258. See, e.g., Photo: Chinese Activists Protest Yahoo, CNET NEWS, Oct. 19, 2005, http://news.cnet.com/2300-1028_3-5902094-1.html.
259. Press Release, Open MIC, OpenMIC Investor Coalition Files Shareholder Resolutions with Internet Service Providers on Freedom of Expression and Privacy (Jan. 28, 2009), available at http://www.openmic.org/node/196.
260. See, e.g., Declan McCullagh, Proposed Law Targets Tech-China Cooperation, CNET NEWS, Feb. 16, 2006, http.://news.cnet.com/Proposed-law-targets-tech-China-cooperation/2100-1028_3-6040303.html (discussing the introduction of the first bill regulating how U.S.companies interact with foreign governments).
261. See, e.g., Declan McCullagh, "Internet Freedom" Bill Targeting China Cooperation Faces Rough Road, CNET NEWS, May 28, 2008, http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-9952815-38.html (noting Google's support for and Microsoft's opposition to the Global Online Freedom Act of 2007).
262. See generally Anne Broache, Web Giants Ask for Feds' Help on Censorship, CNET NEWS, Jan. 30, 2007, http.://news.cnet.com/Web-giants-ask-for-feds-help-on-censorship/2100-1028_3-6154930.html (noting that tech companies, like Google, support U.S.laws classifying censorship as a trade barrier).
263. See, e.g., CTR. FOR DEMOCRACY & TECH., ANALYSIS OF THE GLOBAL ONLINE.
264. Brendan Ballou, Global Online Freedom Act: Governments Can't Protect Freedom by Themselves (July 24, 2008), http://futureoftheinternet.org/global-online-freedom-act-governments-cant-protect-freedom-by-themselves (arguing that a specific bill may do more harm than good).
265. John Palfrey, Leaked Cisco Document: Chinese Censorship Among "Opportunities" (May 22, 2008), http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/palfrey/2008/05/22/leaked-cisco-document-chinese-censorship-among-opportunities (" I have not been a supporter of passing a law like the Global Online Freedom Act in its current or historic form, because I think it would have too many unintended consequences.").
266. See, e.g., Surya Deva, Corporate Complicity in Internet Censorship in China, 39 GEO. WASH. INT'L L. REV. 255, 315 (2007) (arguing that legislation is legitimate to enforce human rights objectives, but the Global Online Freedom Act "is unlikely to achieve its objectives in its current form").
267. Mark D. Nawyn, Code Red: Responding to the Moral Hazards Facing U.S. Information Technology Companies in China, 2007 COLUM. BUS. L. REV. 505, 549 (supporting legislation generally but noting problems with the Act).
268. cf. Seth F. Kreimer, Censorship by Proxy: The First Amendment, Internet Intermediaries, and the Problem of the Weakest Link, 155 U. PA. L. REV. 11, 100-01 (2006) (describing the risks of targeting Internet intermediaries via regulation).
269. See infra Part III.C.2.c.
270. American firms and legislation have been the focus of such efforts, but there are parallel concerns in other Western countries. For example, Nokia Siemens Networks, a Finnish company, recently faced criticism for supplying technology enabling telephone surveillance to Iran. Christopher Rhoads & Loretta Chao, Iran's Web Spying Aided by Western Technology, WALL ST. J., June 22, 2009, at A1.
271. But see Press Release, Nokia Siemens Networks, Provision of Lawful Intercept Capability to Iran (June 22, 2009), available at http://www.nokiasiemens networks.com/global/Press/Press+releases/news-archive/Provision+of+Lawful+Intercept+capability+in+Iran.htm (arguing that Nokia Siemens only provided Iran with the capability to monitor local telephone calls and not Web filtering services).
272. See, e.g., Anne Broache, Politicos OK Limits for U.S. Firms in Net-Censoring Countries, CNET NEWS, Oct. 23, 2007, http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9802616-7.html (discussing Microsoft and the Computer & Communications Industry Association).
273. Global Online Freedom Act of 2007, H.R. 275, 110th Cong. § 201 (2007).
274. see also Christopher Stevenson, Note, Breaching the Great Firewall: China's Internet Censorship and the Quest for Freedom of Expression in a Connected World, 30 B.C. INT'L & COMP. L. REV. 531, 548-53 (2007) (analyzing the predecessor Act of 2006).
275. Letter from Brian A. Benczkowski, Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney Gen., Office of Legislative Affairs, U.S. Dep't of Justice, to the Honorable Howard L. Berman, Acting Chairman, H. Comm. on Foreign Affairs (May 19, 2008), available at http://politechbot.com/docs/doj.letter.gofa.052708.pdf.
276. See Declan McCullagh, White House Opposition Likely Dooms Anti-China Internet Bill, CNET NEWS, May 30, 2008, http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-9956124-38.html (predicting that the Bush Administration's opposition "is likely to doom the legislation").
277. See Derek E. Bambauer, Cool Tools for Tyrants, LEGAL AFF., Jan./Feb. 2006, available at http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/January-February-2006/feature_bambauer_janfeb06.msp.
278. See, e.g., Nate Anderson, Yahoo on China: We're Doing Some Good, ARS TECHNICA, May 12, 2006, http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2006/05/6823.ars.
279. Alison Maitland, Skype Says Texts Are Censored by China, FIN. TIMES, Apr. 19, 2006, at 25, available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/875630d4-cef9-11da-925d-0000779e2340.html.
280. Andrew McLaughlin, Google in China, OFFICIAL GOOGLE BLOG, Jan. 27, 2006, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2006/01/google-in-china.html.
281. See, e.g., Tom Krazit, Google's Censorship Struggles Continue in China, CNET NEWS, June 16, 2009, http://news.cnet.com/8301-17939_109-10265123-2.html.
282. G. Jeffrey MacDonald, Congress's Dilemma: When Yahoo in China's Not Yahoo, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, Feb. 14, 2006, at 1, available at http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0214/p01s04-usfp.html.
283. The other two contentions are beyond the methodology's reach. Whether a country has a sufficiently developed domestic technology industry to sustain filtering without outside assistance is an empirical question. Whether a censored Internet shaped with Western technology is better than one without is a philosophical question, though recent data suggests Chinese Internet users have access to 20 percent more Web content on controversial topics due to the presence of Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo! Villeneuve.
284. They also elide the question of initial design: when a manufacturer knows a product can be used for multiple purposes-some legitimate and some not-should that producer design it to minimize harmful uses? See Bambauer.
285. Brief of Amici Curiae Emerging Technology Companies in Support of Respondents at 21-25, MGM Studios v. Grokster, 545 U.S. 913 (2005) (No. 04-480)
286. 18 U.S.C. § 922(d)(1) (2006).
287. Grokster, 545 U.S. at 919 (" One who distributes a device with the object of promoting its use to infringe copyright. .. is liable for the resulting acts of infringement by third parties.").
288. see also A&M Records v. Napster, 239 F.3d 1004, 1022 (9th Cir. 2001) (affirming the award of a preliminary injunction against an online file-sharing technology company).
289. Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios, 464 U.S. 417, 442 (1984).
290. See OPENNET INITIATIVE, ETHIOPIA 4 (2007), http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/ONI_Ethiopia_2007.pdf (describing Ethiopia's hit or miss Internet censorship, in which some sports enthusiasts' blogs are blocked while some opposition political sites remain accessible).
291. Andrew Heavens, You Block Blogspot, I Block Boing Boing (Oct. 8, 2007), http://www.meskelsquare.com/archives/2007/10/ethiopia_blocks.html.
292. Frank Davies, Holding Their Feet to the Fire: Google, Yahoo, Cisco Face Angry Senators on Rights of Users in Repressive Nations, SAN JOSE MERCURY NEWS, May 21, 2008, at 1C.
293. Matt Marshall, Microsoft and Bokee Mired in Chinese Free-Speech Controversy, MERCURY NEWS, Jan. 4, 2006, http://www.siliconbeat.com/entries/2006/01/04/microsoft_and_bokee_mired_in_chinese_freespeech_controversy.html.
294. Google to Censor Itself in China, CNN.COM, Jan. 26, 2006, http://www.cnn.com/2006/BUSINESS/01/25/google.china/.
295. Filter Blocks Danes from Accessing Child Pornography, FIN. MIRROR, Nov. 28, 2005.
296. Press Release, Telenor, Telenor and Swedish National Criminal Investigation Department to Introduce Internet Child Porn Filter (May 17, 2005), available at http://press.telenor.com/PR/200505/994781_5.html.
297. Tom Zeller, Jr., Internet Firms Facing Questions About Censoring Online Searches in China, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 15, 2006, at C3.
298. See Stuart Biggs, Under Oath and Under Pressure, S. CHINA MORNING POST, Feb. 21, 2006, at 1 (quoting Alibaba's chief executive as saying "[w]e are very co-operative with the authorities").
299. Frank Davies, Internet Freedom: Pressure Growing, SAN JOSE MERCURY NEWS, July 22, 2006, at A1 (quoting former CNN Beijing bureau chief Rebecca MacKinnon as calling the Act's 2006 predecessor "hypocritical and arrogant" for this reason).
300. 15 C.F.R. § 742.15(b)(2) (2009).
301. see also U.S. DEP'T OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF INDUSTRY AND SECURITY, 2004 REPORT ON FOREIGN POLICY-BASED EXPORT CONTROLS 40 (2005), available at http://www.bis.doc.gov/policiesandregulations/05forpolcontrols/04finalfpreport.pdf (stating that the Department "generally denies license applications for exports" of most items to Cuba, subject to certain "case-by-case" exceptions).
302. 22 U.S.C. § 6082 (2006).
303. see also, e.g., Adam Liptak, A Wave of the Watch List, and Speech Disappears, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 4, 2008, at A16 (describing the actions of the U.S. Treasury Office of Foreign Assets Control to block access to the website of a British national organizing trips to Cuba for European tourists).
304. See Foreign Relations Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1990-1991, Pub. L. No. 101-246 § 902(a)(4), 104 Stat. 15, 83 (1990) (suspending export licenses for crime control and detection equipment to China after the Tiananmen Square repression of 1989).
305. See Ryan Singel, Seeking Tighter Censorship, Repressive States Target Web 2.0 Apps, WIRED, Mar. 4, 2008, http://blog.wired.com/business/2008/03/etech-what-happ.html.
306. Ethan Zuckerman, The Cute Cat Theory Talk at ETech (Mar. 8, 2008), http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/2008/03/08/the-cute-cat-theory-talk-at-etech/(discussing censorship of Web 2.0 technologies and describing a Tunisian video mash-up of Apple's famous "1984" ad used to criticize President Ben Ali).
307. Cf. Jeffrey Gedmin, Reporting Among Gangsters, WASH. POST, July 2, 2008, at A15 (describing the Uzbek regime as authoritarian and prone to human rights abuses).
308. 31 C.F.R. § 560.204 (2008).
309. see also Sun Microsystems, Embargoed Countries, http://www.sun.com/sales/its/countries/Embargoed.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2009) (listing Iran as an embargoed country).
310. Opennet Initiative, Internet Filtering In Iran 2004-2005, at n.1 (2005), http://opennet.net/studies/iran#1.
311. See Keith Bradsher, At Trade Show, China's Police Shop for the West's Latest, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 26, 2008, at C1.
312. 15 C.F.R. § 738 Supp. 1 (identifying the export to China of items classified as crime control 1 as subject to EAR license requirements).
313. Secure Computing, for example, discloses only that 36 percent of 2007 revenues came from international sales, and that major foreign markets include China. Secure Computing Corp. Annual Report (Form 10-K), at 29 (Mar. 5, 2008).
314. Kathleen Connors et al., OpenNet Initiative, Latin America, http://opennet.net/research/regions/la (last visited Oct. 25, 2009).
315. U.S. Dep't of State, Human Rights, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/(last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
316. Reporters Without Borders, List of the 13 Internet Enemies (Nov. 7, 2006) http://www.rsf.org/spip.php?page=article&id_article=19603 (maintaining a list of countries that "systematically violate online free expression").
317. The regulation could incorporate the Digital Millennium Copyright Act's definition of "service provider." See 17 U.S.C. § 512(k)(1) (2006).
318. See, e.g., Floyd Norris, S.E.C. Rethinks Lists Linking Companies and Terrorist States, N.Y. TIMES, July 21, 2007, at C2.
319. See, e.g., William Baue, SEC Urged to Strengthen Rules Governing Corporate Disclosure of Environmental Risks, SOCIALFUNDS, Aug. 21, 2002, http://www.socialfunds.com/news/article.cgi/911.html.
320. Barnaby J. Feder, New Battles over Disclosure, N.Y. TIMES, June 24, 1990, at F10.
321. Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986, 42 U.S.C. §§ 11131-34 (2006).
322. see also U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., National Practitioner Data Bank, http://www.npdb-hipdb.hrsa.gov/npdb.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
323. 42 U.S.C. § 11131.
324. U.S. GAO, NO. GAO-03-836, MEDICAL MALPRACTICE: IMPLICATIONS OF RISING PREMIUMS ON ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE passim (2003), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03836.pdf.
325. See, e.g., Richard A. Oppel, Jr., Bush Enters Fray over Malpractice, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 17, 2003, at A24 (citing NPDB data on average malpractice judgment awards).
326. 42 U.S.C. § 11023 (2008); 40 C.F.R. § 372.1 (2008).
327. see also U.S. EPA, What Is the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) Program, http://www.epa.gov/tri/triprogram/whatis.htm (last visited Oct. 23, 2009). Toxics data is publicly available, though. See MARY GRAHAM, DEMOCRACY BY DISCLOSURE 21-61 (2002).
328. NASA, ASRS-Aviation Safety Reporting System, http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/overview/summary.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
329. While incident reports to ASRS are voluntary, they are confidential, and policymakers employ them in crafting regulations. NASA, PUB. 60, ASRS: THE CASE FOR CONFIDENTIAL INCIDENT REPORTING SYSTEMS 7 (2001), available at http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/docs/rs/60_Case_for_Confidential_Incident_Reporting.pdf.
330. See, e.g., Three ISPs Agree to Block Child Porn, SLASHDOT, June 10, 2008, available at http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=08/06/10/1819200.
331. See, e.g., Reporters Without Borders, Dictatorships Get to Grips with Web 2.0 (Feb. 1, 2007), http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20844.
332. See, e.g., UN HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL, REPORT OF THE WORKING GROUP ON THE UNIVERSAL PERIODIC REVIEW-TUNISIA 10, 12 (2008).
333. Bradley Graham, Violence Said to Slow Rights Effort in Iraq: Report Lauds Steps Toward Democracy, WASH. POST, Mar. 9, 2006, at A15 (quoting the Assistant Secretary for Human Rights on "growing attention to government censorship of the Internet").
334. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND THE INTERNET IN CHINA 2-6 (2001), available at http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2001/08/01/freedom-expression-and-internet-china (analyzing Chinese laws used to regulate Internet content).
335. See, e.g., Reporters Without Borders, Test of Filtering by Sohu and Sina Search Engines Following Upgrade (June 22, 2006), http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=18015.
336. Human Rights Watch, Venezuela: TV Shutdown Harms Free Expression (May 21, 2007), http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/05/22/venezu15986.htm.
337. Simon Romero, Chavez Looks at His Critics in the Media and Sees the Enemy, N.Y. TIMES, June 1, 2007, at A6.
338. OPENNET INITIATIVE, VENEZUELA (2007), http://opennet.net/research/profiles/venezuela.
339. Reporters Without Borders is better known as Reporters Sans Frontières (RSF); the organization is based in France.
340. OPENNET INITIATIVE, EGYPT (2009), http://opennet.net/research/profiles/egypt.
341. OPENNET INITIATIVE, TAJIKISTAN (2007), http://opennet.net/research/profiles/tajikistan.
342. Reporters Without Borders, Internet Enemies: Egypt (Mar. 12, 2009), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a38f987c.html.
343. Reporters Without Borders, Countries Under Surveillance-Tajikistan, http.://arabia.reporters-sans-frontieres.org/article.php3?id_article=26127 (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
344. Cf. David J. Rothkopf, Values Conundrum: Will the U.S. and China Play by the Same Rules?, WASH. POST, July 11, 2005, at A15 (" The first step is recognizing everyone's hypocrisy.").
345. See, e.g., Calum MacLeod, China: U.S. Criticism of Human Rights Record Is "Hypocrisy," USA TODAY, Mar. 10, 2006, at 9A.
346. See, e.g., Frank Davies, U.S. Criticizes Abuses of Human Rights but It Has Used Many of the Same Tactics, ST. PAUL PIONEER PRESS, Mar. 1, 2005, at A5 (noting the U.S. State Department's criticism of Pakistan, Egypt, and Syria for employing methods that the U.S. employed when interrogating captives).
347. See, e.g., Joseph Kahn, China Defends Internet Censorship, INT'L HERALD TRIB., Feb. 14, 2006, available at http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/02/14/business/net.php (quoting an official in the Information Office of the Chinese State Council that, in view of "the main international practices in this regard, you will find that China is basically in compliance with the international norm").
348. FREEDOM HOUSE, FREEDOM OF THE PRESS: METHODOLOGY (2007), http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=350&ana_page=339&year=2007.
349. Compare FREEDOM HOUSE, MAP OF PRESS FREEDOM: OMAN (2007), http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&country=7246&year=2007 (labeling Oman as "Not Free," and ranking it 165 out of 195 countries).
350. Better Bus. Bureau, BBB Online Business Program, http://www.bbb.org/us/bbb-online-business/(last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
351. TRUSTe Homepage, http://www.truste.org/businesses/web_privacy_seal.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
352. But see Ben Edelman, Certifications and Site Trustworthiness (Sept. 25, 2005), http://www.benedelman.org/news/092506-1.html (finding that 5.4 percent of TRUSTe's certified Web sites are labeled untrustworthy by SiteAdvisor, versus 2.5 percent of Web sites listed overall).
353. See TransFair USA, Fair Trade Certification Overview, http://www.transfairusa.org/content/certification/overview.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
354. Forest Stewardship Council, What Is "Certification" ?, http://www.fscus.org/faqs/what_is_certification.php (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
355. See, e.g., TERRACHOICE, THE "SIX SINS OF GREENWASHING" 2-4 (2007), available at http://www.terrachoice.com/files/6_sins.pdf.
356. See generally John M. Conley & Cynthia A. Williams, Engage, Embed, and Embellish: Theory Versus Practice in the Corporate Social Responsibility Movement, 31 IOWA J. CORP. L. 1, 18-20 (2005) (observing that watchdog organizations like Greenpeace must take care to "avoid complicity" in corporate efforts to conceal "environmental malfeasance").
357. But see Eric Pfanner, Cooling Off on Dubious Eco-Friendly Claims, N.Y. TIMES, July 18, 2008, at C3 (noting that consumers have become skeptical of misleading claims of environmental friendliness).
358. See generally Joshua A. Newberg, Corporate Codes of Ethics, Mandatory Disclosure, and the Market for Ethical Conduct, 29 VT. L. REV. 253, 287-94 (2005) (arguing that firms "actively compete on the basis of ethical commitments" when their conduct is made transparent).
359. See generally CITIZEN LAB, EVERYONE'S GUIDE TO BY-PASSING INTERNET CENSORSHIP (2007), available at http://citizenlab.org/CL-circGuide-online.pdf (describing several circumvention technologies such as Web tunneling software and anonymous communication systems, as well as explaining their use).
360. See Anonymizer, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.anonymizer.com/company/about/anonymizer-faq.html (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
361. See, e.g., Psiphon Homepage, http://psiphon.ca (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
362. See, e.g., Tor: Anonymity Online, http://www.torproject.org (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
363. See, e.g., OpenNet Initiative, Google Search & Cache Filtering Behind China's Great Firewall (Sep. 3, 2004), http://opennet.net/bulletins/006.
364. See Robert Lemos, Tor Hack Proposed to Catch Criminals, SECURITYFOCUS, Mar. 8, 2007, http://www.securityfocus.com/news/11447.
365. See, e.g., Keep Internet Neighborhoods Safe: Hearing Before the S. Comm. on the Judiciary, 110th Cong. 10-14 (2007) (statement of Philip Heymann, Professor, Harvard University Law School), available at http://judiciary.senate.gov/hearings/testimony.cfm?id=2755 &wit_id=6468.
366. The author of this Article acted as a technical advisor to the Internet Drugs Expert Working Group that developed the proposal outlined by Heymann. See Drug Strategies, Internet Drugs: Internet Expert Panel, http://www.drugstrategies.com/internetdrugs/iep.html#1 (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
367. Anton Troianovski & Peter Finn, Kremlin Seeks to Extend Its Reach to Cyberspace, WASH. POST, Oct. 28, 2007, at A1.
368. See, e.g., Alex Rodriguez, Trial in Russia Sends Message to Bloggers, CHI. TRIB., Mar. 31, 2008, at C8.
369. See Baidu Leads China Web Search Market in Q4, REUTERS, Jan. 25, 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSSHA11273420080125 (listing Baidu at 60.1 percent market share, Google at 25.9 percent, and Yahoo! China at 9.6 percent).
370. Press Release, China Internet Network Info. Ctr., CNNIC Releases 2007 Survey Report on China Weblog Market (Dec. 27, 2007), available at http://www.cnnic.cn/html/Dir/2007/12/27/4954.htm (claiming that China has nearly 73 million blogs and 47 million bloggers).
371. See IBM, China Research Laboratory, http://www.research.ibm.com/beijing (last visited Oct. 23, 2009).
372. Viktor Mayer-Schonberger & Malte Ziewetz, Jefferson Rebuffed: The United States and the Future of Internet Governance, 8 COLUM. SCI. & TECH. L. REV. 188, 204 (2007).
373. See, e.g., Gates Defends China's Internet Restrictions, TIMES ONLINE, Jan. 27, 2006, http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article721120.ece.
374. Press Release, U.N. Office in Belarus, Commission Adopts Measures on Situations in Cuba, Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Approves Special Rapporteurs for Belarus and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Apr. 15, 2004), available at http://un.by/en/hr/releases/21-04-04-4.html.